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CRITICAL CASE SAMPLING Critical case sampling is where you collect samples that are most likely to give you the information you’re looking for; They are particularly important cases or ones that highlight vital information.. This type of sampling is “particularly useful if a small number of cases can be sampled” (Strewig & Stead, 2001). CONSERVATIVE IN STATISTICS Conservative in statistics has the same general meaning as in other areas: avoiding excess by erring on the side of caution. In statistics, “conservative” specifically refers to being cautious when it comes to hypothesis tests, test results, or confidence intervals. Reporting conservatively means that you’re less likely tobe giving out
WATERFALL PLOT / CHART: DEFINITION, TYPES & EXAMPLES In medical research, particularly oncology, a waterfall plot is a special type of bar chart which allows you to see, at a glance, such details as the response of a number of patients to treatment, the growth of tumors in cancer patients, or the effectiveness of drugs given various criteria. These plots look like ordered bar graphs,where some
HOTELLING'S T-SQUARED: SIMPLE DEFINITION Hotelling’s T-Squared (Hotelling, 1931) is the multivariate counterpart of the T-test. “Multivariate” means that you have data for more than one parameter for each sample. For example, let’s say you wanted to compare how well two different sets of students performed in school. RANKED VARIABLE: DEFINITION, EXAMPLES, AND USAGE IN STATISTICSSEE MORE ON STATISTICSHOWTO.COM LEFT TAILED TEST OR RIGHT TAILED TEST ? HOW TO DECIDE Basic Hypothesis Testing Steps. Need help with a homework question?Check out our tutoring page! Decide if you have a one-tailed test or a two-tailed test (How to decide if a hypothesis test is a one-tailed test or a two-tailed test).If you have a two-tailed test, you don’t need to worry about whether it’s a left tailed or right tailed test (because it’s both!). CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE Common measures of clinical significance include relative risk, absolute risk, and number needed to treat (NNT).. Clinical Significance vs. Statistical Significance. Clinical significance is sometimes called clinical importance, to differentiate it from statistical significance.. Statistical significance is associated with p-values and other repeatable, measurable statistics. FMAX / HARTLEY'S TEST: DEFINITION, STEP BY STEP EXAMPLE What is The Fmax Test? The Fmax test (also called Hartley’s Fmax) is a test for homogeneity of variance. In other words, the spread of your data should be similar across groups or levels.Compared to Levene’s test, Hartley’s test is fairly simple to figure out by hand.. An assumption of the Fmax test is that there are an equal number of participants in each group. DESIGN EFFECT: DEFINITION, EXAMPLES STATISTICAL NOISE: SIMPLE DEFINITION, EXAMPLES ANDSEE MORE ONSTATISTICSHOWTO.COM
CRITICAL CASE SAMPLING Critical case sampling is where you collect samples that are most likely to give you the information you’re looking for; They are particularly important cases or ones that highlight vital information.. This type of sampling is “particularly useful if a small number of cases can be sampled” (Strewig & Stead, 2001). CONSERVATIVE IN STATISTICS Conservative in statistics has the same general meaning as in other areas: avoiding excess by erring on the side of caution. In statistics, “conservative” specifically refers to being cautious when it comes to hypothesis tests, test results, or confidence intervals. Reporting conservatively means that you’re less likely tobe giving out
WATERFALL PLOT / CHART: DEFINITION, TYPES & EXAMPLES In medical research, particularly oncology, a waterfall plot is a special type of bar chart which allows you to see, at a glance, such details as the response of a number of patients to treatment, the growth of tumors in cancer patients, or the effectiveness of drugs given various criteria. These plots look like ordered bar graphs,where some
HOTELLING'S T-SQUARED: SIMPLE DEFINITION Hotelling’s T-Squared (Hotelling, 1931) is the multivariate counterpart of the T-test. “Multivariate” means that you have data for more than one parameter for each sample. For example, let’s say you wanted to compare how well two different sets of students performed in school. RANKED VARIABLE: DEFINITION, EXAMPLES, AND USAGE IN STATISTICSSEE MORE ON STATISTICSHOWTO.COM LEFT TAILED TEST OR RIGHT TAILED TEST ? HOW TO DECIDE Basic Hypothesis Testing Steps. Need help with a homework question?Check out our tutoring page! Decide if you have a one-tailed test or a two-tailed test (How to decide if a hypothesis test is a one-tailed test or a two-tailed test).If you have a two-tailed test, you don’t need to worry about whether it’s a left tailed or right tailed test (because it’s both!). CENSORING IN STATISTICS AND CLINICAL TRIALS: CENSORED DATA For example, in a 13-week clinical trial for pain relief, as many as 35% of patients failed to complete the study because of side effects from the medication or lack of relief from the placebo ().In general, drop outs from trials are very common: a 2010 report by the National Academy of Sciences states that patient dropout rates can sometimesexceed 30%.
ANOVA TEST: DEFINITION, TYPES, EXAMPLES A factorial ANOVA is an Analysis of Variance test with more than one independent variable, or “ factor “. It can also refer to more than one Level of Independent Variable. For example, an experiment with a treatment group and a control group has one factor (thetreatment) but
COHEN'S D: DEFINITION, EXAMPLES, FORMULAS Note: The bias towards small samples bias is slightly smaller for an alternative method, Hedges’ g, which uses n-1 for each sample.. Interpreting Results. A d of 1 indicates the two groups differ by 1 standard deviation, a d of 2 indicates they differ by 2 standard deviations, and so on.Standard deviations are equivalent to z-scores (1 standard deviation = 1 z-score). COMMUNALITY: DEFINITION, EXAMPLES In PCA and Factor Analysis, a variable’s communality is a useful measure for predicting the variable’s value. More specifically, it tells you what proportion of the variable’s variance is a result of either: The correlations between each variable and individual factors (Vogt, 1999). In Factor Analysis, communality may be denoted as h2. CONSERVATIVE IN STATISTICS Conservative in statistics has the same general meaning as in other areas: avoiding excess by erring on the side of caution. In statistics, “conservative” specifically refers to being cautious when it comes to hypothesis tests, test results, or confidence intervals. Reporting conservatively means that you’re less likely tobe giving out
FAMOUS MATHEMATICIANS AND STATISTICIANS He invented calculus of variations, including the Euler-Lagrange equation. 4. Famous Mathematicians and Statisticians: Carl Gauss. Carl Friedrich Gauss (1824-1908) Carl Gauss was born into poverty, but became one of the most influential mathematicians of all time. PARK TEST: DEFINITION, HOW TO RUN Steps for Running a Park Test. Step 1 : Run ordinary least squares on your data. Make sure the regression produces a table of residuals. Step 2 : Square the residuals from Step 1. Step 3 : Take the natural log of the squared residuals from Step 2. Step 4 : Take the natural log of Z, the variable which you suspect is causing theheteroscedastic
RANKED VARIABLE: DEFINITION, EXAMPLES, AND USAGE IN STATISTICS Types of Variable > . A ranked variable is an ordinal variable; a variable where every data point can be put in order (1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc.). You may not know an exact value of any of your points, but you know which comes after the other. Examples of Ranked Variables CLUSTERED STANDARD ERRORS: DEFINITION Clustered Standard Errors (CSEs) happen when some observations in a data set are related to each other. This correlation occurs when an individual trait, like ability or socioeconomic background, is identical or similar for groups of observations within clusters. Panel data (multi-dimensional data collected over time) is usually the typeof
GERMAN TANK PROBLEM
German Tank Problem. The German Tank Problem is a way to estimate the total population size from a small sample. It’s commonly used in AP statistics to teach about estimators. The problem was originally developed by the Allies during World War II, when it was used to estimate the total number of German tanks from a small number of serial numbers from captured, destroyed, or observed tanks. DESIGN EFFECT: DEFINITION, EXAMPLES CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE Clinical significance is sometimes called clinical importance, to differentiate it from statistical significance. Statistical significance is associated with p-values and other repeatable, measurable statistics. Specifically, it tells you how likely any differences in outcomes between the treatment group and control groups are not due to chance CONSERVATIVE IN STATISTICS Conservative in statistics has the same general meaning as in other areas: avoiding excess by erring on the side of caution. In statistics, “conservative” specifically refers to being cautious when it comes to hypothesis tests, test results, or confidence intervals. Reporting conservatively means that you’re less likely tobe giving out
ONE TAILED TEST OR TWO IN HYPOTHESIS TESTING: HOW TO Alpha levels (sometimes just called “significance levels”) are used in hypothesis tests; it is the probability of making the wrong decision when the null hypothesis is true. A one-tailed test has the entire 5% of the alpha level in one tail (in either the left, or the right tail). A two-tailed test splits your alpha level in half (as in the image to the left). FRIEDMAN'S TEST / TWO WAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE BY RANKS Step 2: Rank each column separately. The smallest score should get a rank of 1. I am ranking across rows here so each patient is being ranked a 1, 2, or 3 for each treatment. Step 3: Sum the ranks (find a total for each column). 2. Run the Test. Note: This test isn’t usually run by hand, as the calculations are time consuming andlabor-intensive.
ALPHA LEVEL (SIGNIFICANCE LEVEL): WHAT IS IT? The significance level or alpha level is the probability of making the wrong decision when the null hypothesis is true. Alpha levels (sometimes just called “significance levels”) are used in hypothesis tests.Usually, these tests are run with an alpha level of.05 (5%),
RANKED VARIABLE: DEFINITION, EXAMPLES, AND USAGE IN STATISTICSSEE MORE ON STATISTICSHOWTO.COM REGWF (RYAN-EINOT-GABRIEL-WELSH F) PROCEDURE ERROR PROPAGATION (PROPAGATION OF UNCERTAINTYSEE MORE ONSTATISTICSHOWTO.COM
HOTELLING'S T-SQUARED: SIMPLE DEFINITION Hotelling’s T-Squared (Hotelling, 1931) is the multivariate counterpart of the T-test. “Multivariate” means that you have data for more than one parameter for each sample. For example, let’s say you wanted to compare how well two different sets of students performed in school. DESIGN EFFECT: DEFINITION, EXAMPLES CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE Clinical significance is sometimes called clinical importance, to differentiate it from statistical significance. Statistical significance is associated with p-values and other repeatable, measurable statistics. Specifically, it tells you how likely any differences in outcomes between the treatment group and control groups are not due to chance CONSERVATIVE IN STATISTICS Conservative in statistics has the same general meaning as in other areas: avoiding excess by erring on the side of caution. In statistics, “conservative” specifically refers to being cautious when it comes to hypothesis tests, test results, or confidence intervals. Reporting conservatively means that you’re less likely tobe giving out
ONE TAILED TEST OR TWO IN HYPOTHESIS TESTING: HOW TO Alpha levels (sometimes just called “significance levels”) are used in hypothesis tests; it is the probability of making the wrong decision when the null hypothesis is true. A one-tailed test has the entire 5% of the alpha level in one tail (in either the left, or the right tail). A two-tailed test splits your alpha level in half (as in the image to the left). FRIEDMAN'S TEST / TWO WAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE BY RANKS Step 2: Rank each column separately. The smallest score should get a rank of 1. I am ranking across rows here so each patient is being ranked a 1, 2, or 3 for each treatment. Step 3: Sum the ranks (find a total for each column). 2. Run the Test. Note: This test isn’t usually run by hand, as the calculations are time consuming andlabor-intensive.
ALPHA LEVEL (SIGNIFICANCE LEVEL): WHAT IS IT? The significance level or alpha level is the probability of making the wrong decision when the null hypothesis is true. Alpha levels (sometimes just called “significance levels”) are used in hypothesis tests.Usually, these tests are run with an alpha level of.05 (5%),
RANKED VARIABLE: DEFINITION, EXAMPLES, AND USAGE IN STATISTICSSEE MORE ON STATISTICSHOWTO.COM REGWF (RYAN-EINOT-GABRIEL-WELSH F) PROCEDURE ERROR PROPAGATION (PROPAGATION OF UNCERTAINTYSEE MORE ONSTATISTICSHOWTO.COM
HOTELLING'S T-SQUARED: SIMPLE DEFINITION Hotelling’s T-Squared (Hotelling, 1931) is the multivariate counterpart of the T-test. “Multivariate” means that you have data for more than one parameter for each sample. For example, let’s say you wanted to compare how well two different sets of students performed in school. FMAX / HARTLEY'S TEST: DEFINITION, STEP BY STEP EXAMPLE What is The Fmax Test? The Fmax test (also called Hartley’s Fmax) is a test for homogeneity of variance. In other words, the spread of your data should be similar across groups or levels.Compared to Levene’s test, Hartley’s test is fairly simple to figure out by hand.. An assumption of the Fmax test is that there are an equal number of participants in each group. CENSORING IN STATISTICS AND CLINICAL TRIALS: CENSORED DATA For example, in a 13-week clinical trial for pain relief, as many as 35% of patients failed to complete the study because of side effects from the medication or lack of relief from the placebo ().In general, drop outs from trials are very common: a 2010 report by the National Academy of Sciences states that patient dropout rates can sometimesexceed 30%.
COHEN'S D: DEFINITION, EXAMPLES, FORMULAS The formula for Cohen’s D is: d = M1 – M2 / spooled. Where: M 1 = mean of group 1. M 2 = mean of group 2. s pooled = pooled standard deviations for the two groups. The formula is: √ Cohen’s D works best for larger sample sizes (> 50). For smallersample sizes, it
CHOOSE BIN SIZES FOR HISTOGRAMS IN EASY STEPS + STURGE'S Step 3: Decide how many bins you need using your best guess and using the guidelines listed in the intro paragraph above. Step 4: Divide your range (the numbers in your data set) by the bin size you chose in Step 3. For example, if you have numbers that range from 0 to 50, and you chose 5 bins, your bin size is 50/5=10. HOTELLING'S T-SQUARED: SIMPLE DEFINITION Hotelling’s T-Squared (Hotelling, 1931) is the multivariate counterpart of the T-test. “Multivariate” means that you have data for more than one parameter for each sample. For example, let’s say you wanted to compare how well two different sets of students performed in school. RANKED VARIABLE: DEFINITION, EXAMPLES, AND USAGE IN STATISTICS Types of Variable > . A ranked variable is an ordinal variable; a variable where every data point can be put in order (1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc.). You may not know an exact value of any of your points, but you know which comes after the other. Examples of Ranked Variables WATERFALL PLOT / CHART: DEFINITION, TYPES & EXAMPLES In medical research, particularly oncology, a waterfall plot is a special type of bar chart which allows you to see, at a glance, such details as the response of a number of patients to treatment, the growth of tumors in cancer patients, or the effectiveness of drugs given various criteria. These plots look like ordered bar graphs,where some
INDEX OF DISPERSION (VARIANCE TO MEAN RATIO) Solution: A D of 0.90 indicates there is a very even spread across all categories.. Index of Dispersion vs. Coefficient of Variation. The index of dispersion is very similar to the Coefficient of Variation, but they are not the same:. The Coefficient of Variation is the ratio of the standard deviation to the mean. It is always dimensionless (i.e. it is a plain number without a unit) and is LEFT TAILED TEST OR RIGHT TAILED TEST ? HOW TO DECIDE IN Basic Hypothesis Testing Steps. Need help with a homework question?Check out our tutoring page! Decide if you have a one-tailed test or a two-tailed test (How to decide if a hypothesis test is a one-tailed test or a two-tailed test).If you have a two-tailed test, you don’t need to worry about whether it’s a left tailed or right tailed test (because it’s both!). AREA BETWEEN TWO Z SCORES ON ONE SIDE OF THE MEAN Step 1: Split your z-scores after the tenths place. For example, if you have z score of 1.95 and 2.13, they become 1.9 + 0.05 and 2.1 + .03. Step 2: Look in the z-table for your z-scores (you should have two from Step 1) by finding the intersections.For example, if you are asked to find the area from z = -0.46 to z = -0. 04, look up both 0.46 and 0.04 (see note below about negative numbers). ANOVA TEST: DEFINITION, TYPES, EXAMPLES A two-way ANOVA has two factors (independent variables) and one dependent variable.For example, time spent studying and prior knowledge are factors that affect how well you do on a test. A three-way ANOVA has three factors (independent variables) and one dependent variable. For example, time spent studying, prior knowledge, and hours of sleep are factors that affect how well you do on a test SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLE: DEFINITION AND DESIGN EFFECT: DEFINITION, EXAMPLES STATISTICAL NOISE: SIMPLE DEFINITION, EXAMPLES ANDSEE MORE ON STATISTICSHOWTO.COMRADIO NOISE DEFWHITE NOISE STATISTICSNOISE IN STATISTICSWHITE NOISE IN STATISTICS HOTELLING'S T-SQUARED: SIMPLE DEFINITION Where:. N 1 & N 2 = sample sizes,; p = number of variables measured, N 1 + N 2 – p – 1 = degrees of freedom.; Reject the null hypothesis (at a chosen significance level) if the calculated value is greater than the F-table critical value.Rejecting the null hypothesis means that at least one of the parameters, or a combination of one or more parameters working together, is significantly BOX PLOT (BOX AND WHISKERS): HOW TO READ ONE & HOW TO MAKE Step 3: Click the type of chart you want to display, either Simple or Clustered, then click a radio button for either summaries of groups or separate variables. Step 4: Click “Define” to open the “Define Simple Boxplot” dialog box. Step 5: Click a variable in the left window that you want to see medians or IQRs for. This is the analytical variable, the one that will be displayed on the CONSERVATIVE IN STATISTICS Statistics Definitions > Conservative. What does “Conservative” mean in Statistics? Conservative in statistics has the same general meaning as in other areas: avoiding excess by erring on the side ofcaution.
CRITICAL CASE SAMPLING Critical case sampling is where you collect samples that are most likely to give you the information you’re looking for; They are particularly important cases or ones that highlight vital information.. This type of sampling is “particularly useful if a small number of cases can be sampled” (Strewig & Stead, 2001). ONE TAILED TEST OR TWO IN HYPOTHESIS TESTING: HOW TO Alpha levels (sometimes just called “significance levels”) are used in hypothesis tests; it is the probability of making the wrong decision when the null hypothesis is true. A one-tailed test has the entire 5% of the alpha level in one tail (in either the left, or the right tail). A two-tailed test splits your alpha level in half (as in the image to the left). SUPPORT OR REJECT NULL HYPOTHESIS IN EASY STEPS Vioxx was pulled from the market after it was linked to heart problems.. To reject the null hypothesis, perform the following steps: Step 1: State the null hypothesis. When you state the null hypothesis, you also have to state the alternate hypothesis. ANOVA TEST: DEFINITION, TYPES, EXAMPLES A two-way ANOVA has two factors (independent variables) and one dependent variable.For example, time spent studying and prior knowledge are factors that affect how well you do on a test. A three-way ANOVA has three factors (independent variables) and one dependent variable. For example, time spent studying, prior knowledge, and hours of sleep are factors that affect how well you do on a test SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLE: DEFINITION AND DESIGN EFFECT: DEFINITION, EXAMPLES STATISTICAL NOISE: SIMPLE DEFINITION, EXAMPLES ANDSEE MORE ON STATISTICSHOWTO.COMRADIO NOISE DEFWHITE NOISE STATISTICSNOISE IN STATISTICSWHITE NOISE IN STATISTICS HOTELLING'S T-SQUARED: SIMPLE DEFINITION Where:. N 1 & N 2 = sample sizes,; p = number of variables measured, N 1 + N 2 – p – 1 = degrees of freedom.; Reject the null hypothesis (at a chosen significance level) if the calculated value is greater than the F-table critical value.Rejecting the null hypothesis means that at least one of the parameters, or a combination of one or more parameters working together, is significantly BOX PLOT (BOX AND WHISKERS): HOW TO READ ONE & HOW TO MAKE Step 3: Click the type of chart you want to display, either Simple or Clustered, then click a radio button for either summaries of groups or separate variables. Step 4: Click “Define” to open the “Define Simple Boxplot” dialog box. Step 5: Click a variable in the left window that you want to see medians or IQRs for. This is the analytical variable, the one that will be displayed on the CONSERVATIVE IN STATISTICS Statistics Definitions > Conservative. What does “Conservative” mean in Statistics? Conservative in statistics has the same general meaning as in other areas: avoiding excess by erring on the side ofcaution.
CRITICAL CASE SAMPLING Critical case sampling is where you collect samples that are most likely to give you the information you’re looking for; They are particularly important cases or ones that highlight vital information.. This type of sampling is “particularly useful if a small number of cases can be sampled” (Strewig & Stead, 2001). ONE TAILED TEST OR TWO IN HYPOTHESIS TESTING: HOW TO Alpha levels (sometimes just called “significance levels”) are used in hypothesis tests; it is the probability of making the wrong decision when the null hypothesis is true. A one-tailed test has the entire 5% of the alpha level in one tail (in either the left, or the right tail). A two-tailed test splits your alpha level in half (as in the image to the left). SUPPORT OR REJECT NULL HYPOTHESIS IN EASY STEPS Vioxx was pulled from the market after it was linked to heart problems.. To reject the null hypothesis, perform the following steps: Step 1: State the null hypothesis. When you state the null hypothesis, you also have to state the alternate hypothesis. DATA MINING: SIMPLE DEFINITION, USES Principal Components Analysis: reduces your data to manageable levels.PCA is a good tool to use if you suspect you have redundancy (correlations as opposed to duplicate items) in your data set.Make a Histogram: If you have a very large set of data, a histogram can reduce your data to a simple set of bins; Bins work like sorting bins in real life — imagine physically sorting the data into a CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE Common measures of clinical significance include relative risk, absolute risk, and number needed to treat (NNT).. Clinical Significance vs. Statistical Significance. Clinical significance is sometimes called clinical importance, to differentiate it from statistical significance.. Statistical significance is associated with p-values and other repeatable, measurable statistics. SAMPLE SIZE IN STATISTICS (HOW TO FIND IT): EXCEL, COCHRAN A sample is a percentage of the total population in statistics. You can use the data from a sample to make inferences about a population as a whole. For example, the standard deviation of a sample can be used to approximate the standard deviation of a population. Finding a sample size can be one of the most challenging tasks in statistics and depends upon many factors including the size ofHYPOTHESIS TESTING
Hypothesis testing in statistics is a way for you to test the results of a survey or experiment to see if you have meaningful results. You’re basically testing whether your results are valid by figuring out the odds that your results have happened by chance. STATISTICAL NOISE: SIMPLE DEFINITION, EXAMPLES AND Statistical noise is the random irregularity we find in any real life data. It consists of errors and residuals; the differences between the true value of what we study and the numbers our experiments gave us. POPULATION VARIANCE: DEFINITION AND EXAMPLES Here N is the population size and the x i are data points. μ is the population mean.. Example. Sample question: Find the population variance of the age of children in a family of five children aged 16, 11, 9, 8, and 1: Step 1: Find the mean, μ x: μ = 9. Step 2: Subtract each data point from the mean, then square the result: (16-9) 2 = 49 (11-9) 2 = 4 (9-9) 2 = 0 (8-9) 2 = 1 MEASUREMENT VARIABLE: DEFINITION, EXAMPLES Simply put, a measurement variable (sometimes called a numeric variable) expresses some type of measurement and has a number associated with it.For example: 12 cm, 5 feet, or 310 meters. The measured quantity doesn’t have to be something you’d crack out aruler to find.
RELATIVE RISK AND ABSOLUTE RISK: DEFINITION AND EXAMPLES Relative Risk; Relative Risk Reduction; Absolute Risk; Absolute Risk Reduction; Need help with a homework problem?Check out our tutoring page! 1. What is Relative Risk? The relative risk (also called the risk ratio) of something happening is where you compare the odds for two groups against each other.. For example, you could have two groups of women: one group has a mother, sister or daughter DISCRETE VS CONTINUOUS VARIABLES: HOW TO TELL THE In an introductory stats class, one of the first things you’ll learn is the difference between discrete vs continuous variables. In a nutshell, discrete variables are points plotted on a chart and a continuous variable can be plotted as a line. PEARSON MODE SKEWNESS: DEFINITION AND FORMULAS The mean, mode and median can be used to figure out if you have a positively or negatively skewed distribution.. If the mean is greater than the mode, the distribution is positively skewed.; If the mean is less than the mode, the distribution is negatively skewed.; If the mean is greater than the median, the distribution is positively skewed.; If the mean is less than the median, the * Statistics How To Facebook * Statistics How To Youtube Search Responsive MenuSTATISTICS HOW TO
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