ATOMICARCHIVE.COM: EXPLORING THE HISTORY, SCIENCE, ANDSCIENCEHISTORYRESOURCESMEDIA GALLERYALMANACNUCLEAR FACILITIES The Atomic Archive explores the complex history surrounding the invention of the atomic bomb. Follow a timeline that takes you down the path of our nuclear past to the present. Read biographies of A-bomb father Robert Oppenheimer and Enrico Fermi's dispassionate account of the Trinity Test. Examine maps of the damage to Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and summaries of arms-control treaties.

NUCLEAR TEST SITES

Nuclear Test Sites. Since the first nuclear test explosion on July 16, 1945, at least eight nations have detonated 2,056 nuclear test explosions at dozens of test sites, including Lop Nor in China, the atolls of the Pacific, Nevada, Algeria where France conducted its first nuclear device, western Australia where the U.K. exploded

nuclear

EINSTEIN'S EQUATION

Einstein's Equation. The mass of the nucleus is about 1 percent smaller than the mass of its individual protons and neutrons. This difference is called the mass defect. The mass defect arises from the energy released when the nucleons (protons and neutrons) bind together to form the nucleus. This energy is called the binding energy. The binding energy determines which nuclei are stable and how

THE MACH STEM

Effects of Nuclear Weapons. The Mach Stem. If the explosion occurs above the ground, when the expanding blast wave strikes the surface of the earth, it is reflected off the ground to form a second shock wave traveling behind the first. This reflected wave travels faster than the first, or incident, shock wave since it is traveling through air already moving at high speed due to the passage of

TOTAL CASUALTIES

The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by The Manhattan Engineer District, June 29, 1946. Total Casualties. There has been great difficulty in estimating the total casualties in the Japanese cities as a result of the atomic bombing. The extensive destruction of civil installations (hospitals, fire and police department, and government agencies) the state of utter confusion immediately GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE CAUSED BY THE ATOMIC The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by The Manhattan Engineer District, June 29, 1946. General Description of Damage Caused by the Atomic Explosions. In considering the devastation in the two cities, it should be remembered that the cities' differences in shape and topography resulted in great differences in the damages. Hiroshima was all on low, flat ground, and was roughly circular

JAPAN'S REACTION

Japan's Reaction. Despite the horror of Hiroshima, there were many in the Japanese government that disbelieved the United States had the technical ability to develop, yet alone transport and drop, an atomic bomb. The events of August 9 changed all that. Urakami Cathedral, near the south wall entrance.The pillar of an entrance has crack and the RADIATION EFFECTS ON HUMANS Effects of Nuclear Weapons. Radiation Effects on Humans. Certain body parts are more specifically affected by exposure to different types of radiation sources. Several factors are involved in determining the potential health effects of exposure to radiation. RADIATION AT TRINITY SITE Radioactive minerals in rocks and soil = 55 mrems per year. Radioactivity from air, water, and food = anywhere from 20 to 400 mrem per year. About 22 mrem per chest X-ray and 900 mrem for whole-mouth dental X-rays. Smoking one pack of cigarettes a day for one year = 40 mrem. Miscellaneous such as watch dials and smoke detectors = 2 mrem

per year.

THE CHEMICAL SEPARATION BUILDINGS (QUEEN MARYS) The Chemical Separation Buildings (Queen Marys) Both 221T and 221U, the chemical separation buildings in the 200-West complex, were finished by December 1944. 221B, their counterpart in 200-East, was completed in spring 1945. Nicknamed Queen Marys by the workers who built them, the separation buildings were awesome canyon-like

structures 800

ATOMICARCHIVE.COM: EXPLORING THE HISTORY, SCIENCE, ANDSCIENCEHISTORYRESOURCESMEDIA GALLERYALMANACNUCLEAR FACILITIES The Atomic Archive explores the complex history surrounding the invention of the atomic bomb. Follow a timeline that takes you down the path of our nuclear past to the present. Read biographies of A-bomb father Robert Oppenheimer and Enrico Fermi's dispassionate account of the Trinity Test. Examine maps of the damage to Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and summaries of arms-control treaties.

NUCLEAR TEST SITES

Nuclear Test Sites. Since the first nuclear test explosion on July 16, 1945, at least eight nations have detonated 2,056 nuclear test explosions at dozens of test sites, including Lop Nor in China, the atolls of the Pacific, Nevada, Algeria where France conducted its first nuclear device, western Australia where the U.K. exploded

nuclear

EINSTEIN'S EQUATION

Einstein's Equation. The mass of the nucleus is about 1 percent smaller than the mass of its individual protons and neutrons. This difference is called the mass defect. The mass defect arises from the energy released when the nucleons (protons and neutrons) bind together to form the nucleus. This energy is called the binding energy. The binding energy determines which nuclei are stable and how

THE MACH STEM

Effects of Nuclear Weapons. The Mach Stem. If the explosion occurs above the ground, when the expanding blast wave strikes the surface of the earth, it is reflected off the ground to form a second shock wave traveling behind the first. This reflected wave travels faster than the first, or incident, shock wave since it is traveling through air already moving at high speed due to the passage of

TOTAL CASUALTIES

The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by The Manhattan Engineer District, June 29, 1946. Total Casualties. There has been great difficulty in estimating the total casualties in the Japanese cities as a result of the atomic bombing. The extensive destruction of civil installations (hospitals, fire and police department, and government agencies) the state of utter confusion immediately

JAPAN'S REACTION

Japan's Reaction. Despite the horror of Hiroshima, there were many in the Japanese government that disbelieved the United States had the technical ability to develop, yet alone transport and drop, an atomic bomb. The events of August 9 changed all that. Urakami Cathedral, near the south wall entrance.The pillar of an entrance has crack and the GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE CAUSED BY THE ATOMIC The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by The Manhattan Engineer District, June 29, 1946. General Description of Damage Caused by the Atomic Explosions. In considering the devastation in the two cities, it should be remembered that the cities' differences in shape and topography resulted in great differences in the damages. Hiroshima was all on low, flat ground, and was roughly circular RADIATION EFFECTS ON HUMANS Effects of Nuclear Weapons. Radiation Effects on Humans. Certain body parts are more specifically affected by exposure to different types of radiation sources. Several factors are involved in determining the potential health effects of exposure to radiation. RADIATION AT TRINITY SITE Radioactive minerals in rocks and soil = 55 mrems per year. Radioactivity from air, water, and food = anywhere from 20 to 400 mrem per year. About 22 mrem per chest X-ray and 900 mrem for whole-mouth dental X-rays. Smoking one pack of cigarettes a day for one year = 40 mrem. Miscellaneous such as watch dials and smoke detectors = 2 mrem

per year.

THE CHEMICAL SEPARATION BUILDINGS (QUEEN MARYS) The Chemical Separation Buildings (Queen Marys) Both 221T and 221U, the chemical separation buildings in the 200-West complex, were finished by December 1944. 221B, their counterpart in 200-East, was completed in spring 1945. Nicknamed Queen Marys by the workers who built them, the separation buildings were awesome canyon-like

structures 800

NUCLEAR TEST SITES

Nuclear Test Sites. Since the first nuclear test explosion on July 16, 1945, at least eight nations have detonated 2,056 nuclear test explosions at dozens of test sites, including Lop Nor in China, the atolls of the Pacific, Nevada, Algeria where France conducted its first nuclear device, western Australia where the U.K. exploded

nuclear

INTRODUCTION

The atomic bomb, first tested in New Mexico on July 16, 1945, had just been used against a military target. On August 6th, 1945, at 8:15 A.M., Japanese time, a B-29 heavy bomber flying at high altitude dropped the first atomic bomb on Hiroshima. More than 4 square miles of the city were instantly and completely devastated. 66,000 people

were

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE CAUSED BY THE ATOMIC The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by The Manhattan Engineer District, June 29, 1946. General Description of Damage Caused by the Atomic Explosions. In considering the devastation in the two cities, it should be remembered that the cities' differences in shape and topography resulted in great differences in the damages. Hiroshima was all on low, flat ground, and was roughly circular

BRITISH MISSION

The first official contact between American and British nuclear research following the outbreak of the war in Europe took place in the Fall of 1940 when Sir Henry Tizard, accompanied by Professor J. D. Cockcroft, led a mission to Washington. The MAUD Committee programme was described and was found to parallel the United States programme

THE BLAST WAVE

Effects of Nuclear Weapons. Basic Effects of Nuclear Weapons. Nuclear explosions produce both immediate and delayed destructive effects. Blast, thermal radiation, prompt ionizing radiation are produced and cause significant destruction within seconds or minutes of a nuclear detonation. The delayed effects, such as radioactive fallout and other possible environmental effects, inflict damage CHAPTER XIII: GENERAL SUMMARY h2>CHAPTER XIII: GENERAL SUMMARY PRESENT OVERALL STATUS. 13.1. As the result of the labors of the Manhattan District organization in Washington and in Tennessee, of the scientific groups at Berkeley, Chicago, Columbia, Los Alamos, and else- where, of the industrial groups at Clinton, Hanford, and many other places, the end of June 1945 finds us expecting from day to day to hear of the THE SELECTION OF THE TARGET The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by The Manhattan Engineer District, June 29, 1946. The Selection of the Target. Some of the most frequent queries concerning the atomic bombs are those dealing with the selection of the targets and the decision as to when the bombs would be used.

THE BLAST WAVE

Effects of Nuclear Weapons. The Blast Wave. A fraction of a second after a nuclear explosion, the heat from the fireball causes a high-pressure wave to develop and move outward producing the blast effect. The front of the blast wave, i.e., the shock front, travels rapidly away from the fireball, a moving wall of highly compressed

air.

BLAST EFFECTS ON HUMANS Effects of Nuclear Weapons. Blast Effects on Humans. Blast damage is caused by the arrival of the shock wave created by the nuclear explosion. Humans are actually quite resistant to the direct effect of overpressure. Pressures of over 40 psi are required before lethal

effects are noted.

EINSTEIN'S LETTER TO PRESIDENT ROOSEVELT Einstein's Letter to President Roosevelt - 1939. Some recent work by E. Fermi and L. Szilard, which has been communicated to me in manuscript, leads me to expect that the element uranium may be turned into a new and important source of energy in the immediate future. Certain aspects of the situation which has arisen seem to call for ATOMICARCHIVE.COM: EXPLORING THE HISTORY, SCIENCE, ANDSCIENCEHISTORYRESOURCESMEDIA GALLERYALMANACNUCLEAR FACILITIES The Atomic Archive explores the complex history surrounding the invention of the atomic bomb. Follow a timeline that takes you down the path of our nuclear past to the present. Read biographies of A-bomb father Robert Oppenheimer and Enrico Fermi's dispassionate account of the Trinity Test. Examine maps of the damage to Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and summaries of arms-control treaties.

NUCLEAR TEST SITES

Nuclear Test Sites. Since the first nuclear test explosion on July 16, 1945, at least eight nations have detonated 2,056 nuclear test explosions at dozens of test sites, including Lop Nor in China, the atolls of the Pacific, Nevada, Algeria where France conducted its first nuclear device, western Australia where the U.K. exploded

nuclear

EINSTEIN'S EQUATION

Einstein's Equation. The mass of the nucleus is about 1 percent smaller than the mass of its individual protons and neutrons. This difference is called the mass defect. The mass defect arises from the energy released when the nucleons (protons and neutrons) bind together to form the nucleus. This energy is called the binding energy. The binding energy determines which nuclei are stable and how

THE MACH STEM

Effects of Nuclear Weapons. The Mach Stem. If the explosion occurs above the ground, when the expanding blast wave strikes the surface of the earth, it is reflected off the ground to form a second shock wave traveling behind the first. This reflected wave travels faster than the first, or incident, shock wave since it is traveling through air already moving at high speed due to the passage of

TOTAL CASUALTIES

The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by The Manhattan Engineer District, June 29, 1946. Total Casualties. There has been great difficulty in estimating the total casualties in the Japanese cities as a result of the atomic bombing. The extensive destruction of civil installations (hospitals, fire and police department, and government agencies) the state of utter confusion immediately GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE CAUSED BY THE ATOMIC The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by The Manhattan Engineer District, June 29, 1946. General Description of Damage Caused by the Atomic Explosions. In considering the devastation in the two cities, it should be remembered that the cities' differences in shape and topography resulted in great differences in the damages. Hiroshima was all on low, flat ground, and was roughly circular

JAPAN'S REACTION

Japan's Reaction. Despite the horror of Hiroshima, there were many in the Japanese government that disbelieved the United States had the technical ability to develop, yet alone transport and drop, an atomic bomb. The events of August 9 changed all that. Urakami Cathedral, near the south wall entrance.The pillar of an entrance has crack and the RADIATION EFFECTS ON HUMANS Effects of Nuclear Weapons. Radiation Effects on Humans. Certain body parts are more specifically affected by exposure to different types of radiation sources. Several factors are involved in determining the potential health effects of exposure to radiation. RADIATION AT TRINITY SITE Radioactive minerals in rocks and soil = 55 mrems per year. Radioactivity from air, water, and food = anywhere from 20 to 400 mrem per year. About 22 mrem per chest X-ray and 900 mrem for whole-mouth dental X-rays. Smoking one pack of cigarettes a day for one year = 40 mrem. Miscellaneous such as watch dials and smoke detectors = 2 mrem

per year.

THE CHEMICAL SEPARATION BUILDINGS (QUEEN MARYS) The Chemical Separation Buildings (Queen Marys) Both 221T and 221U, the chemical separation buildings in the 200-West complex, were finished by December 1944. 221B, their counterpart in 200-East, was completed in spring 1945. Nicknamed Queen Marys by the workers who built them, the separation buildings were awesome canyon-like

structures 800

ATOMICARCHIVE.COM: EXPLORING THE HISTORY, SCIENCE, ANDSCIENCEHISTORYRESOURCESMEDIA GALLERYALMANACNUCLEAR FACILITIES The Atomic Archive explores the complex history surrounding the invention of the atomic bomb. Follow a timeline that takes you down the path of our nuclear past to the present. Read biographies of A-bomb father Robert Oppenheimer and Enrico Fermi's dispassionate account of the Trinity Test. Examine maps of the damage to Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and summaries of arms-control treaties.

NUCLEAR TEST SITES

Nuclear Test Sites. Since the first nuclear test explosion on July 16, 1945, at least eight nations have detonated 2,056 nuclear test explosions at dozens of test sites, including Lop Nor in China, the atolls of the Pacific, Nevada, Algeria where France conducted its first nuclear device, western Australia where the U.K. exploded

nuclear

EINSTEIN'S EQUATION

Einstein's Equation. The mass of the nucleus is about 1 percent smaller than the mass of its individual protons and neutrons. This difference is called the mass defect. The mass defect arises from the energy released when the nucleons (protons and neutrons) bind together to form the nucleus. This energy is called the binding energy. The binding energy determines which nuclei are stable and how

THE MACH STEM

Effects of Nuclear Weapons. The Mach Stem. If the explosion occurs above the ground, when the expanding blast wave strikes the surface of the earth, it is reflected off the ground to form a second shock wave traveling behind the first. This reflected wave travels faster than the first, or incident, shock wave since it is traveling through air already moving at high speed due to the passage of

TOTAL CASUALTIES

The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by The Manhattan Engineer District, June 29, 1946. Total Casualties. There has been great difficulty in estimating the total casualties in the Japanese cities as a result of the atomic bombing. The extensive destruction of civil installations (hospitals, fire and police department, and government agencies) the state of utter confusion immediately GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE CAUSED BY THE ATOMIC The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by The Manhattan Engineer District, June 29, 1946. General Description of Damage Caused by the Atomic Explosions. In considering the devastation in the two cities, it should be remembered that the cities' differences in shape and topography resulted in great differences in the damages. Hiroshima was all on low, flat ground, and was roughly circular

JAPAN'S REACTION

Japan's Reaction. Despite the horror of Hiroshima, there were many in the Japanese government that disbelieved the United States had the technical ability to develop, yet alone transport and drop, an atomic bomb. The events of August 9 changed all that. Urakami Cathedral, near the south wall entrance.The pillar of an entrance has crack and the RADIATION EFFECTS ON HUMANS Effects of Nuclear Weapons. Radiation Effects on Humans. Certain body parts are more specifically affected by exposure to different types of radiation sources. Several factors are involved in determining the potential health effects of exposure to radiation. RADIATION AT TRINITY SITE Radioactive minerals in rocks and soil = 55 mrems per year. Radioactivity from air, water, and food = anywhere from 20 to 400 mrem per year. About 22 mrem per chest X-ray and 900 mrem for whole-mouth dental X-rays. Smoking one pack of cigarettes a day for one year = 40 mrem. Miscellaneous such as watch dials and smoke detectors = 2 mrem

per year.

THE CHEMICAL SEPARATION BUILDINGS (QUEEN MARYS) The Chemical Separation Buildings (Queen Marys) Both 221T and 221U, the chemical separation buildings in the 200-West complex, were finished by December 1944. 221B, their counterpart in 200-East, was completed in spring 1945. Nicknamed Queen Marys by the workers who built them, the separation buildings were awesome canyon-like

structures 800

NUCLEAR TEST SITES

Nuclear Test Sites. Since the first nuclear test explosion on July 16, 1945, at least eight nations have detonated 2,056 nuclear test explosions at dozens of test sites, including Lop Nor in China, the atolls of the Pacific, Nevada, Algeria where France conducted its first nuclear device, western Australia where the U.K. exploded

nuclear

INTRODUCTION

The atomic bomb, first tested in New Mexico on July 16, 1945, had just been used against a military target. On August 6th, 1945, at 8:15 A.M., Japanese time, a B-29 heavy bomber flying at high altitude dropped the first atomic bomb on Hiroshima. More than 4 square miles of the city were instantly and completely devastated. 66,000 people

were

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE CAUSED BY THE ATOMIC The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by The Manhattan Engineer District, June 29, 1946. General Description of Damage Caused by the Atomic Explosions. In considering the devastation in the two cities, it should be remembered that the cities' differences in shape and topography resulted in great differences in the damages. Hiroshima was all on low, flat ground, and was roughly circular

BRITISH MISSION

The first official contact between American and British nuclear research following the outbreak of the war in Europe took place in the Fall of 1940 when Sir Henry Tizard, accompanied by Professor J. D. Cockcroft, led a mission to Washington. The MAUD Committee programme was described and was found to parallel the United States programme

THE BLAST WAVE

Effects of Nuclear Weapons. Basic Effects of Nuclear Weapons. Nuclear explosions produce both immediate and delayed destructive effects. Blast, thermal radiation, prompt ionizing radiation are produced and cause significant destruction within seconds or minutes of a nuclear detonation. The delayed effects, such as radioactive fallout and other possible environmental effects, inflict damage CHAPTER XIII: GENERAL SUMMARY h2>CHAPTER XIII: GENERAL SUMMARY PRESENT OVERALL STATUS. 13.1. As the result of the labors of the Manhattan District organization in Washington and in Tennessee, of the scientific groups at Berkeley, Chicago, Columbia, Los Alamos, and else- where, of the industrial groups at Clinton, Hanford, and many other places, the end of June 1945 finds us expecting from day to day to hear of the THE SELECTION OF THE TARGET The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by The Manhattan Engineer District, June 29, 1946. The Selection of the Target. Some of the most frequent queries concerning the atomic bombs are those dealing with the selection of the targets and the decision as to when the bombs would be used.

THE BLAST WAVE

Effects of Nuclear Weapons. The Blast Wave. A fraction of a second after a nuclear explosion, the heat from the fireball causes a high-pressure wave to develop and move outward producing the blast effect. The front of the blast wave, i.e., the shock front, travels rapidly away from the fireball, a moving wall of highly compressed

air.

BLAST EFFECTS ON HUMANS Effects of Nuclear Weapons. Blast Effects on Humans. Blast damage is caused by the arrival of the shock wave created by the nuclear explosion. Humans are actually quite resistant to the direct effect of overpressure. Pressures of over 40 psi are required before lethal

effects are noted.

EINSTEIN'S LETTER TO PRESIDENT ROOSEVELT Einstein's Letter to President Roosevelt - 1939. Some recent work by E. Fermi and L. Szilard, which has been communicated to me in manuscript, leads me to expect that the element uranium may be turned into a new and important source of energy in the immediate future. Certain aspects of the situation which has arisen seem to call for

* Science

* History

* Resources

* Media Gallery

* Almanac

*

*

*

TRINITY TEST

On July 16, 1945 the world changed with the explosion of the world's

first atomic bomb.

Read more

HIROSHIMA & NAGASAKI At 8:15 on August 6, 1945, the world's first atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima. Almost the entire city was devastated in that single moment. Three days later the city of Nagasaki suffered the same fate.

Learn more

BIOGRAPHIES

Learn about the people who shaped the atomic age.

Read More

Previous Next

SCIENCE

Learn how nuclear weapons work and the science behind them. The effects of a nuclear weapons are also explained, along with two example scenarios of a nuclear explosion over a city.

Fission | Fusion

| Effects of Nuclear Weapons

| More »

HISTORY

A comprehensive section chronicling the discovery of nuclear fission, the race for the atomic bomb, the development of the hydrogen bomb and the ensuing Cold War and beyond. Manhattan Project | Trinity Test | Hiroshima & Nagasaki

| Cold War

| More »

RESOURCE LIBRARY

Peruse an archive of compelling materials including historical documents and treaties, a nuclear history timeline, and a glossary of more than 100 terms. Biographies | Glossary | Historical Documents

| More »

MEDIA GALLERY

View a collection of historical photographs, animations and video

footage.

Photographs | Videos

| Maps | More »

NUCLEAR ALMANAC

Explore our nuclear world with an extensive collection of data and interactive maps about nuclear stockpiles, facilities, and forces. Nuclear Facilities | Nuclear Testing

| Nuclear Forces

| More »

------------------------- A VISIT TO THE ATOMIC TESTING MUSEUM The museum, a partnership between the Nevada Test Site Historical Foundation and the Desert Research Institute, is an affiliate of the Smithsonian Institution and is located just east of the Las Vegas strip. The goal of the museum is to preserve and foster public accessibility to the history associated with the Nevada Test Site (NTS) and the Nation's nuclear weapons testing program..

Visit »

------------------------- THE CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS: A LOOK BACK FROM THE BRINK For thirteen days in October 1962 the world waited—seemingly on the brink of nuclear war—and hoped for a peaceful resolution to the Cuban Missile Crisis. This section is a collection of historic documents, photographs and timeline of those 13 days.

View details »

------------------------- THIS MONTH IN ATOMIC HISTORY

1919

June - Rutherford creates oxygen from nitrogen.

1940

June 3 - German scientists fail to observe neutron multiplication in the reactor in Hamburg.

1945

June 11 - The Franck Report was sent to the Secretary of War. More

�

1946

June 14 - Baruch presents the Acheson-Lilienthal plan to internationalize the atom to the U.N. More » June 30 - First subsurface detonation by U.S. at Bikini Atoll.

1954

June 27 - The world's first nuclear power plant becomes operational in Obninsk, outside of Moscow.

1963

June 20 - U.S./U.S.S.R. sign 'hot line' agreement. More »

1967

June 17 - First fusion device test by the Chinese, with a yield of

3 megatons.

1979

June 18 - SALT II Treaty is signed in Vienna by Brezhnev and

Carter. More »

1981

June 7 - Israel destroys Iraq's Osirak reactor.

1982

June 29 - Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START) begin in Geneva.

2002

June 13 - U.S. formally withdrew from the ABM treaty. More » June 14 - Russia formally withdrew from the START II treaty. More »

2004

June 22 - India and Pakistan set up a nuclear 'hotline'.

2007

June 5 - U.S. to Allow START pact to lapse. More » � 1998-2020 All Rights Reserved About Us · Comments and Questions

� Privacy · Site

Map · Support Our Site