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SPECIAL SYMBOLS
Reference space & time, mechanics, thermal physics, waves & optics, electricity & magnetism, modern physics, mathematics, greek alphabet, astronomy, music Style sheet. These are the conventions used in this book. Vector quantities (F, g, v) are written in a bold, serif font — including vector quantities written with Greek symbols (α, τ, ω).Scalar quantities (m, K, t) and scalar magnitudes VECTOR ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION solution. Add vectors in the same direction with "ordinary" addition. x = 11,200 m + 8,400 m. x = 19,600 m. y = 3200 m + 1700 m. y = 4900 m. Add vectors at right angles with a combination of pythagorean theorem for magnitude. r = √ ( x2 + y2) RADIATION – THE PHYSICS HYPERTEXTBOOK f max = : the peak frequency in the spectrum of the thermal radiation emitted by an object: b′ = : Wien's frequency displacement constant (read the symbol as "bee prime"). Again, the choice of units depends on the situation. The SI units is the hertz, but I prefer the gigahertz for peaks in the microwave bands (like the cosmic microwave back ground) and terahertz for peaks in the infrared FREE FALL - RESOURCES At the end of the last Apollo 15 moon walk, Commander David Scott held out a geologic hammer and a feather and dropped them at the same time. Because they were essentially in a vacuum, there was no air resistance and the feather fell at the same rate as the hammer, as Galileo had concluded hundreds of years before.THE NATURE OF SOUND
Problems practice. A typical ultrasonic ranger found in a science classroom emits a 49.4 kHz sound wave that is pulsed 50 times a second. The ultrasound is inaudible, but the beginning of each pulse produces in an audible click. 50 clicks per second gives the ranger its characteristic buzzing sound. FORCES IN TWO DIMENSIONS Force is a vector quantity. Forces have direction and don't you ever forget that. Probably the best way to handle the vector nature of forces is to resolve them into components. Go easy on yourself. Pick the most convenient coordinate system. A system can be in equilibrium or non-equlibrium along an axis.KIRCHHOFF'S RULES
calculus. Two batteries of emf ℰ and internal resistance r are connected in parallel to a load of resistance R as shown in the diagram below. Write Kirchhoff's equations for this circuit. Determine the current through the load. Show that the power dissipated by the load is a maximum when R = ½r.AMPÈRE'S LAW
Beyond the straight wire lies the infinite sheet. Start with Ampère's law because it's the easiest way to derive a solution. ∮B · ds = μ0I. B (2ℓ) = μ 0 σℓ. B =. μ 0 σ. 2. KINEMATICS IN TWO DIMENSIONS Go back to the definition to solve this problem. Average speed is the total distance (which we've already found) divided by the total time (which we need to find). Since time is a scalar, add the times for each leg of the journey to get the total time. ∆ t1 =. ∆ s1. MAGNETISM - PRACTICE practice problem 1. Draw the magnetic field around the following arrangements of magnets. Start each field line on a given blue dot and extend it until it hits anotherSPECIAL SYMBOLS
Reference space & time, mechanics, thermal physics, waves & optics, electricity & magnetism, modern physics, mathematics, greek alphabet, astronomy, music Style sheet. These are the conventions used in this book. Vector quantities (F, g, v) are written in a bold, serif font — including vector quantities written with Greek symbols (α, τ, ω).Scalar quantities (m, K, t) and scalar magnitudes VECTOR ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION solution. Add vectors in the same direction with "ordinary" addition. x = 11,200 m + 8,400 m. x = 19,600 m. y = 3200 m + 1700 m. y = 4900 m. Add vectors at right angles with a combination of pythagorean theorem for magnitude. r = √ ( x2 + y2) RADIATION – THE PHYSICS HYPERTEXTBOOK f max = : the peak frequency in the spectrum of the thermal radiation emitted by an object: b′ = : Wien's frequency displacement constant (read the symbol as "bee prime"). Again, the choice of units depends on the situation. The SI units is the hertz, but I prefer the gigahertz for peaks in the microwave bands (like the cosmic microwave back ground) and terahertz for peaks in the infrared FREE FALL - RESOURCES At the end of the last Apollo 15 moon walk, Commander David Scott held out a geologic hammer and a feather and dropped them at the same time. Because they were essentially in a vacuum, there was no air resistance and the feather fell at the same rate as the hammer, as Galileo had concluded hundreds of years before.THE NATURE OF SOUND
Problems practice. A typical ultrasonic ranger found in a science classroom emits a 49.4 kHz sound wave that is pulsed 50 times a second. The ultrasound is inaudible, but the beginning of each pulse produces in an audible click. 50 clicks per second gives the ranger its characteristic buzzing sound. FORCES IN TWO DIMENSIONS Force is a vector quantity. Forces have direction and don't you ever forget that. Probably the best way to handle the vector nature of forces is to resolve them into components. Go easy on yourself. Pick the most convenient coordinate system. A system can be in equilibrium or non-equlibrium along an axis.KIRCHHOFF'S RULES
calculus. Two batteries of emf ℰ and internal resistance r are connected in parallel to a load of resistance R as shown in the diagram below. Write Kirchhoff's equations for this circuit. Determine the current through the load. Show that the power dissipated by the load is a maximum when R = ½r.AMPÈRE'S LAW
Beyond the straight wire lies the infinite sheet. Start with Ampère's law because it's the easiest way to derive a solution. ∮B · ds = μ0I. B (2ℓ) = μ 0 σℓ. B =. μ 0 σ. 2. KINEMATICS IN TWO DIMENSIONS Go back to the definition to solve this problem. Average speed is the total distance (which we've already found) divided by the total time (which we need to find). Since time is a scalar, add the times for each leg of the journey to get the total time. ∆ t1 =. ∆ s1. MAGNETISM - PRACTICE practice problem 1. Draw the magnetic field around the following arrangements of magnets. Start each field line on a given blue dot and extend it until it hits another THE PHYSICS HYPERTEXTBOOK The Physics Hypertextbook is a reaction to the three big problems with textbooks: lack of writer's voice, layouts that reduce readability, and outdated economics. It is a work in progress. Some parts of this book are essentially finished. Some parts are comically underdone. I work on this project in my spare time. You are welcome to use this website as an educational or entertainment tool. QUANTUM FLAVORDYNAMICS Wolfgang Pauli suggests the neutrino to explain the continuous electron spectrum for beta decay. Enrico Fermi puts forth a theory of beta decay that introduces the weak interaction. This is the first theory to explicitly use neutrinos and particle flavor changes.Frederick
RADIATION – THE PHYSICS HYPERTEXTBOOK f max = : the peak frequency in the spectrum of the thermal radiation emitted by an object: b′ = : Wien's frequency displacement constant (read the symbol as "bee prime"). Again, the choice of units depends on the situation. The SI units is the hertz, but I prefer the gigahertz for peaks in the microwave bands (like the cosmic microwave back ground) and terahertz for peaks in the infrared KINEMATICS IN TWO DIMENSIONS Summary. Kinematics problems in two dimensions are essentially synthetic geometry problems. To solve them you should be able to. Review the kinematic definitions presented earlier in this chapter. First the scalar quantities. Distance is a scalar measure of the space between two positions measured along the actual path connecting them.PRESSURE - SUMMARY
Pressure is a way to describe force in a region of a continuous system. The SI unit of pressure is the pascal . One hundred thousand pascals are sometimes called a bar . The unit atmosphere is 101,325 Pa by definition. COLOR – THE PHYSICS HYPERTEXTBOOK Color is a function of the human visual system, and is not an intrinsic property. Objects don't have a color, they give off light that appears to be a color. Spectral power distributions exist in the physical world, but color exists only in the mind of the beholder. Our perception of color is not an objective measure of anything about thelight
SPEED AND VELOCITY
Velocity is the rate of change of displacement with respect to time. Velocity is a vector, which means the problem should be solved graphically. Draw an arrow pointing toward the top of the page (north). Label it 6 km. Draw another arrow to the left (west) starting from the previous one (arranged head to tail). RESISTORS IN CIRCUITS Total current is determined by the voltage of the power supply and the equivalent resistance of the circuit. IT = VT / RT. IT = 125 V/100 Ω. IT = 1.25 A. Current is constant through resistors in series. IT = I1 = I2 = I3 = 1.25 A. The voltage drops can be found using Ohm's law. V1= I1R1.
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a medical imaging technique that uses strong magnetic fields. Sliding a patient into or out of an MRI machine will result in a small induced current. An electric field across the human body of 6.2 V/m has been suggested as DIFFRACTION AND INTERFERENCE (SOUND) Two identical sound waves will interfere constructively if their paths differ in length by a whole number of wavelengths — destructively ifits a half number.
THE PHYSICS HYPERTEXTBOOKPHYSICSPEOPLEABOUTFREE FALLKINEMATICS ANDCALCULUSPROJECTILES
The Physics Hypertextbook is a reaction to the three big problems with textbooks: lack of writer's voice, layouts that reduce readability, and outdated economics. It is a work in progress. Some parts of this book are essentially finished. Some parts are comically underdone. I work on this project in my spare time. You are welcome to use this website as an educational or entertainment tool.SPECIAL SYMBOLS
Reference space & time, mechanics, thermal physics, waves & optics, electricity & magnetism, modern physics, mathematics, greek alphabet, astronomy, music Style sheet. These are the conventions used in this book. Vector quantities (F, g, v) are written in a bold, serif font — including vector quantities written with Greek symbols (α, τ, ω).Scalar quantities (m, K, t) and scalar magnitudesTHE NATURE OF LIGHT
SIMPLE MACHINES
an instrument designed to transmit or modify the application of power, force or motion. any device that transmits a force or directs its application. Anything that transmits force or directs its application. transferring a force from one place to another. changing the directionof a
GRAPHS OF MOTION
a = −9.8 m/s2. The second method uses the graph and an equation of motion. Since we're given a displacement-time graph, use the displacement-time relationship, a.k.a. the second equation of motion. After 7 seconds, the skydiver has fallen from rest a distance of 240 meters. ∆ s = v0t + ½ at2. a = 2∆ s / t2.SHOCK WAVES
At transonic speeds the shock wave is a wall of high pressure moving with the object, perpendicular to its velocity. Above the speed of sound, the ratio is less than one and the Mach angle is less than ninety degrees. The faster the object moves, the narrower the cone of high pressure behind it becomes. Measuring the vertex angle is thus a RADIATION – THE PHYSICS HYPERTEXTBOOK f max = : the peak frequency in the spectrum of the thermal radiation emitted by an object: b′ = : Wien's frequency displacement constant (read the symbol as "bee prime"). Again, the choice of units depends on the situation. The SI units is the hertz, but I prefer the gigahertz for peaks in the microwave bands (like the cosmic microwave back ground) and terahertz for peaks in the infrared SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR Amplitude uses the same units as displacement for this system — meters , centimeters , etc. Multiply the sine function by A and we're done. Here's the general form solution to the simple harmonic oscillator (and many other second order differential equations). x = A sin (2π ft + φ) where. x =. GAS LAWS – THE PHYSICS HYPERTEXTBOOKSEE MORE ON PHYSICS.INFO ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a medical imaging technique that uses strong magnetic fields. Sliding a patient into or out of an MRI machine will result in a small induced current. An electric field across the human body of 6.2 V/m has been suggested as THE PHYSICS HYPERTEXTBOOKPHYSICSPEOPLEABOUTFREE FALLKINEMATICS ANDCALCULUSPROJECTILES
The Physics Hypertextbook is a reaction to the three big problems with textbooks: lack of writer's voice, layouts that reduce readability, and outdated economics. It is a work in progress. Some parts of this book are essentially finished. Some parts are comically underdone. I work on this project in my spare time. You are welcome to use this website as an educational or entertainment tool.SPECIAL SYMBOLS
Reference space & time, mechanics, thermal physics, waves & optics, electricity & magnetism, modern physics, mathematics, greek alphabet, astronomy, music Style sheet. These are the conventions used in this book. Vector quantities (F, g, v) are written in a bold, serif font — including vector quantities written with Greek symbols (α, τ, ω).Scalar quantities (m, K, t) and scalar magnitudesTHE NATURE OF LIGHT
SIMPLE MACHINES
an instrument designed to transmit or modify the application of power, force or motion. any device that transmits a force or directs its application. Anything that transmits force or directs its application. transferring a force from one place to another. changing the directionof a
GRAPHS OF MOTION
a = −9.8 m/s2. The second method uses the graph and an equation of motion. Since we're given a displacement-time graph, use the displacement-time relationship, a.k.a. the second equation of motion. After 7 seconds, the skydiver has fallen from rest a distance of 240 meters. ∆ s = v0t + ½ at2. a = 2∆ s / t2.SHOCK WAVES
At transonic speeds the shock wave is a wall of high pressure moving with the object, perpendicular to its velocity. Above the speed of sound, the ratio is less than one and the Mach angle is less than ninety degrees. The faster the object moves, the narrower the cone of high pressure behind it becomes. Measuring the vertex angle is thus a RADIATION – THE PHYSICS HYPERTEXTBOOK f max = : the peak frequency in the spectrum of the thermal radiation emitted by an object: b′ = : Wien's frequency displacement constant (read the symbol as "bee prime"). Again, the choice of units depends on the situation. The SI units is the hertz, but I prefer the gigahertz for peaks in the microwave bands (like the cosmic microwave back ground) and terahertz for peaks in the infrared SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR Amplitude uses the same units as displacement for this system — meters , centimeters , etc. Multiply the sine function by A and we're done. Here's the general form solution to the simple harmonic oscillator (and many other second order differential equations). x = A sin (2π ft + φ) where. x =. GAS LAWS – THE PHYSICS HYPERTEXTBOOKSEE MORE ON PHYSICS.INFO ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a medical imaging technique that uses strong magnetic fields. Sliding a patient into or out of an MRI machine will result in a small induced current. An electric field across the human body of 6.2 V/m has been suggested asPHYSICAL CONSTANTS
electric constant. permitivitty of free space. vacuum permitivitty. 8.8541878128. × 10 −12. C 2 /N m 2. μ 0. magnetic constant. permeability of free space.GRAPHS OF MOTION
a = −9.8 m/s2. The second method uses the graph and an equation of motion. Since we're given a displacement-time graph, use the displacement-time relationship, a.k.a. the second equation of motion. After 7 seconds, the skydiver has fallen from rest a distance of 240 meters. ∆ s = v0t + ½ at2. a = 2∆ s / t2. COLOR – THE PHYSICS HYPERTEXTBOOK Color is a function of the human visual system, and is not an intrinsic property. Objects don't have a color, they give off light that appears to be a color. Spectral power distributions exist in the physical world, but color exists only in the mind of the beholder. Our perception of color is not an objective measure of anything about thelight
KINEMATICS AND CALCULUS Calculus is an advanced math topic, but it makes deriving two of the three equations of motion much simpler. By definition, acceleration is the first derivative of velocity with respect to time. Take the operation in that definition and reverse it. Instead of differentiating velocity to find acceleration, integrate accelerationto find velocity.
MUSIC AND NOISE
Music in its simplest form is monotonic; that is, composed only of pure tones.Monotonic music is dull and lifeless like a 1990s ringtone (worse than that even); like a 1970s digital watch alarm (now we're talking); like an oscillating circuit attached to a speaker built by a college student in an introductory physics class (so primitive). GAS LAWS – THE PHYSICS HYPERTEXTBOOK or. P 1 V 1 = P 2 V 2 = constant. This correlation was discovered independently by Robert Boyle (1627–1691) of Ireland in 1662 and Edme Mariotte (1620–1684) of France in 1676. In Great Britain, America, Australia, the West Indies and other remnants of the British Empire it is called Boyle's law, while in Continental Europe and other places it is called Mariotte's law.NUCLEAR WEAPONS
Nuclear weapons are powerful explosive devices that rapidly convert large amounts of nuclear potential energy to kinetic energy. The source of nuclear potential energy (also called binding energy or mass defect) is the strong nuclear force (also called the strongMASS-ENERGY
Something famous. v ≪ c. ⇒. E ≈ mc2. This equation says that an object at rest has energy, which is why it is sometimes called the rest energy equation. It also says that the reason an object at rest has any energy at all is because it has mass, which is why this equation is also known as the mass-energy BUOYANCY – THE PHYSICS HYPERTEXTBOOK Archimedes' principle: The buoyant force (B) on an object immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.. Archimedes of Syracuse (287–212 BCE) was commissioned by King Hiero II of Syracuse to determine if a golden crown made for him was made from pure gold or a low grade alloy as he suspected. The problem was, how to determine the gold content without damaging the crown. VECTOR MULTIPLICATION Multiplication of a vector by a scalar changes the magnitude of the vector, but leaves its direction unchanged. The scalar changes the size of the vector. The scalar "scales" the vector. For example, the polar form vector. r = r r̂ + θ θ̂. multiplied by the scalar a is.a r
THE PHYSICS HYPERTEXTBOOKPHYSICSPEOPLEABOUTFREE FALLKINEMATICS ANDCALCULUSPROJECTILES
The Physics Hypertextbook is a reaction to the three big problems with textbooks: lack of writer's voice, layouts that reduce readability, and outdated economics. It is a work in progress. Some parts of this book are essentially finished. Some parts are comically underdone. I work on this project in my spare time. You are welcome to use this website as an educational or entertainment tool.SPECIAL SYMBOLS
Reference space & time, mechanics, thermal physics, waves & optics, electricity & magnetism, modern physics, mathematics, greek alphabet, astronomy, music Style sheet. These are the conventions used in this book. Vector quantities (F, g, v) are written in a bold, serif font — including vector quantities written with Greek symbols (α, τ, ω).Scalar quantities (m, K, t) and scalar magnitudesTHE NATURE OF LIGHT
SIMPLE MACHINES
an instrument designed to transmit or modify the application of power, force or motion. any device that transmits a force or directs its application. Anything that transmits force or directs its application. transferring a force from one place to another. changing the directionof a
GRAPHS OF MOTION
a = −9.8 m/s2. The second method uses the graph and an equation of motion. Since we're given a displacement-time graph, use the displacement-time relationship, a.k.a. the second equation of motion. After 7 seconds, the skydiver has fallen from rest a distance of 240 meters. ∆ s = v0t + ½ at2. a = 2∆ s / t2.SHOCK WAVES
At transonic speeds the shock wave is a wall of high pressure moving with the object, perpendicular to its velocity. Above the speed of sound, the ratio is less than one and the Mach angle is less than ninety degrees. The faster the object moves, the narrower the cone of high pressure behind it becomes. Measuring the vertex angle is thus a RADIATION – THE PHYSICS HYPERTEXTBOOK f max = : the peak frequency in the spectrum of the thermal radiation emitted by an object: b′ = : Wien's frequency displacement constant (read the symbol as "bee prime"). Again, the choice of units depends on the situation. The SI units is the hertz, but I prefer the gigahertz for peaks in the microwave bands (like the cosmic microwave back ground) and terahertz for peaks in the infrared SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR Amplitude uses the same units as displacement for this system — meters , centimeters , etc. Multiply the sine function by A and we're done. Here's the general form solution to the simple harmonic oscillator (and many other second order differential equations). x = A sin (2π ft + φ) where. x =. GAS LAWS – THE PHYSICS HYPERTEXTBOOKSEE MORE ON PHYSICS.INFO ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a medical imaging technique that uses strong magnetic fields. Sliding a patient into or out of an MRI machine will result in a small induced current. An electric field across the human body of 6.2 V/m has been suggested as THE PHYSICS HYPERTEXTBOOKPHYSICSPEOPLEABOUTFREE FALLKINEMATICS ANDCALCULUSPROJECTILES
The Physics Hypertextbook is a reaction to the three big problems with textbooks: lack of writer's voice, layouts that reduce readability, and outdated economics. It is a work in progress. Some parts of this book are essentially finished. Some parts are comically underdone. I work on this project in my spare time. You are welcome to use this website as an educational or entertainment tool.SPECIAL SYMBOLS
Reference space & time, mechanics, thermal physics, waves & optics, electricity & magnetism, modern physics, mathematics, greek alphabet, astronomy, music Style sheet. These are the conventions used in this book. Vector quantities (F, g, v) are written in a bold, serif font — including vector quantities written with Greek symbols (α, τ, ω).Scalar quantities (m, K, t) and scalar magnitudesTHE NATURE OF LIGHT
SIMPLE MACHINES
an instrument designed to transmit or modify the application of power, force or motion. any device that transmits a force or directs its application. Anything that transmits force or directs its application. transferring a force from one place to another. changing the directionof a
GRAPHS OF MOTION
a = −9.8 m/s2. The second method uses the graph and an equation of motion. Since we're given a displacement-time graph, use the displacement-time relationship, a.k.a. the second equation of motion. After 7 seconds, the skydiver has fallen from rest a distance of 240 meters. ∆ s = v0t + ½ at2. a = 2∆ s / t2.SHOCK WAVES
At transonic speeds the shock wave is a wall of high pressure moving with the object, perpendicular to its velocity. Above the speed of sound, the ratio is less than one and the Mach angle is less than ninety degrees. The faster the object moves, the narrower the cone of high pressure behind it becomes. Measuring the vertex angle is thus a RADIATION – THE PHYSICS HYPERTEXTBOOK f max = : the peak frequency in the spectrum of the thermal radiation emitted by an object: b′ = : Wien's frequency displacement constant (read the symbol as "bee prime"). Again, the choice of units depends on the situation. The SI units is the hertz, but I prefer the gigahertz for peaks in the microwave bands (like the cosmic microwave back ground) and terahertz for peaks in the infrared SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR Amplitude uses the same units as displacement for this system — meters , centimeters , etc. Multiply the sine function by A and we're done. Here's the general form solution to the simple harmonic oscillator (and many other second order differential equations). x = A sin (2π ft + φ) where. x =. GAS LAWS – THE PHYSICS HYPERTEXTBOOKSEE MORE ON PHYSICS.INFO ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a medical imaging technique that uses strong magnetic fields. Sliding a patient into or out of an MRI machine will result in a small induced current. An electric field across the human body of 6.2 V/m has been suggested asPHYSICAL CONSTANTS
electric constant. permitivitty of free space. vacuum permitivitty. 8.8541878128. × 10 −12. C 2 /N m 2. μ 0. magnetic constant. permeability of free space.GRAPHS OF MOTION
a = −9.8 m/s2. The second method uses the graph and an equation of motion. Since we're given a displacement-time graph, use the displacement-time relationship, a.k.a. the second equation of motion. After 7 seconds, the skydiver has fallen from rest a distance of 240 meters. ∆ s = v0t + ½ at2. a = 2∆ s / t2. COLOR – THE PHYSICS HYPERTEXTBOOK Color is a function of the human visual system, and is not an intrinsic property. Objects don't have a color, they give off light that appears to be a color. Spectral power distributions exist in the physical world, but color exists only in the mind of the beholder. Our perception of color is not an objective measure of anything about thelight
KINEMATICS AND CALCULUS Calculus is an advanced math topic, but it makes deriving two of the three equations of motion much simpler. By definition, acceleration is the first derivative of velocity with respect to time. Take the operation in that definition and reverse it. Instead of differentiating velocity to find acceleration, integrate accelerationto find velocity.
MUSIC AND NOISE
Music in its simplest form is monotonic; that is, composed only of pure tones.Monotonic music is dull and lifeless like a 1990s ringtone (worse than that even); like a 1970s digital watch alarm (now we're talking); like an oscillating circuit attached to a speaker built by a college student in an introductory physics class (so primitive). GAS LAWS – THE PHYSICS HYPERTEXTBOOK or. P 1 V 1 = P 2 V 2 = constant. This correlation was discovered independently by Robert Boyle (1627–1691) of Ireland in 1662 and Edme Mariotte (1620–1684) of France in 1676. In Great Britain, America, Australia, the West Indies and other remnants of the British Empire it is called Boyle's law, while in Continental Europe and other places it is called Mariotte's law.NUCLEAR WEAPONS
Nuclear weapons are powerful explosive devices that rapidly convert large amounts of nuclear potential energy to kinetic energy. The source of nuclear potential energy (also called binding energy or mass defect) is the strong nuclear force (also called the strongMASS-ENERGY
Something famous. v ≪ c. ⇒. E ≈ mc2. This equation says that an object at rest has energy, which is why it is sometimes called the rest energy equation. It also says that the reason an object at rest has any energy at all is because it has mass, which is why this equation is also known as the mass-energy BUOYANCY – THE PHYSICS HYPERTEXTBOOK Archimedes' principle: The buoyant force (B) on an object immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.. Archimedes of Syracuse (287–212 BCE) was commissioned by King Hiero II of Syracuse to determine if a golden crown made for him was made from pure gold or a low grade alloy as he suspected. The problem was, how to determine the gold content without damaging the crown. VECTOR MULTIPLICATION Multiplication of a vector by a scalar changes the magnitude of the vector, but leaves its direction unchanged. The scalar changes the size of the vector. The scalar "scales" the vector. For example, the polar form vector. r = r r̂ + θ θ̂. multiplied by the scalar a is.a r
THE PHYSICS HYPERTEXTBOOKPHYSICSPEOPLEABOUTFREE FALLKINEMATICS ANDCALCULUSPROJECTILES
The Physics Hypertextbook is a reaction to the three big problems with textbooks: lack of writer's voice, layouts that reduce readability, and outdated economics. It is a work in progress. Some parts of this book are essentially finished. Some parts are comically underdone. I work on this project in my spare time. You are welcome to use this website as an educational or entertainment tool.SPECIAL SYMBOLS
Reference space & time, mechanics, thermal physics, waves & optics, electricity & magnetism, modern physics, mathematics, greek alphabet, astronomy, music Style sheet. These are the conventions used in this book. Vector quantities (F, g, v) are written in a bold, serif font — including vector quantities written with Greek symbols (α, τ, ω).Scalar quantities (m, K, t) and scalar magnitudes FREQUENTLY USED EQUATIONS Frequently used equations in physics. Appropriate for secondary school students and higher. Mostly algebra based, some trig, some calculus, some fancy calculus.SIMPLE MACHINES
an instrument designed to transmit or modify the application of power, force or motion. any device that transmits a force or directs its application. Anything that transmits force or directs its application. transferring a force from one place to another. changing the directionof a
RESISTORS IN CIRCUITS Total current is determined by the voltage of the power supply and the equivalent resistance of the circuit. IT = VT / RT. IT = 125 V/100 Ω. IT = 1.25 A. Current is constant through resistors in series. IT = I1 = I2 = I3 = 1.25 A. The voltage drops can be found using Ohm's law. V1= I1R1.
QUANTUM FLAVORDYNAMICS FISSION – THE PHYSICS HYPERTEXTBOOK variant3. On Tuesday, September 12, 1933, while waiting at the lights to cross the road to the British Museum in Bloomsbury, Leo Szilard, a Hungarian theoretical physicist, had the flash of insight which was to result in the Little Boy and Fat Man bombs being droppedSHOCK WAVES
At transonic speeds the shock wave is a wall of high pressure moving with the object, perpendicular to its velocity. Above the speed of sound, the ratio is less than one and the Mach angle is less than ninety degrees. The faster the object moves, the narrower the cone of high pressure behind it becomes. Measuring the vertex angle is thus a KINEMATICS IN TWO DIMENSIONS Go back to the definition to solve this problem. Average speed is the total distance (which we've already found) divided by the total time (which we need to find). Since time is a scalar, add the times for each leg of the journey to get the total time. ∆ t1 =. ∆ s1. MAGNETISM - PRACTICE practice problem 1. Draw the magnetic field around the following arrangements of magnets. Start each field line on a given blue dot and extend it until it hits another THE PHYSICS HYPERTEXTBOOKPHYSICSPEOPLEABOUTFREE FALLKINEMATICS ANDCALCULUSPROJECTILES
The Physics Hypertextbook is a reaction to the three big problems with textbooks: lack of writer's voice, layouts that reduce readability, and outdated economics. It is a work in progress. Some parts of this book are essentially finished. Some parts are comically underdone. I work on this project in my spare time. You are welcome to use this website as an educational or entertainment tool.SPECIAL SYMBOLS
Reference space & time, mechanics, thermal physics, waves & optics, electricity & magnetism, modern physics, mathematics, greek alphabet, astronomy, music Style sheet. These are the conventions used in this book. Vector quantities (F, g, v) are written in a bold, serif font — including vector quantities written with Greek symbols (α, τ, ω).Scalar quantities (m, K, t) and scalar magnitudes FREQUENTLY USED EQUATIONS Frequently used equations in physics. Appropriate for secondary school students and higher. Mostly algebra based, some trig, some calculus, some fancy calculus.SIMPLE MACHINES
an instrument designed to transmit or modify the application of power, force or motion. any device that transmits a force or directs its application. Anything that transmits force or directs its application. transferring a force from one place to another. changing the directionof a
RESISTORS IN CIRCUITS Total current is determined by the voltage of the power supply and the equivalent resistance of the circuit. IT = VT / RT. IT = 125 V/100 Ω. IT = 1.25 A. Current is constant through resistors in series. IT = I1 = I2 = I3 = 1.25 A. The voltage drops can be found using Ohm's law. V1= I1R1.
QUANTUM FLAVORDYNAMICS FISSION – THE PHYSICS HYPERTEXTBOOK variant3. On Tuesday, September 12, 1933, while waiting at the lights to cross the road to the British Museum in Bloomsbury, Leo Szilard, a Hungarian theoretical physicist, had the flash of insight which was to result in the Little Boy and Fat Man bombs being droppedSHOCK WAVES
At transonic speeds the shock wave is a wall of high pressure moving with the object, perpendicular to its velocity. Above the speed of sound, the ratio is less than one and the Mach angle is less than ninety degrees. The faster the object moves, the narrower the cone of high pressure behind it becomes. Measuring the vertex angle is thus a KINEMATICS IN TWO DIMENSIONS Go back to the definition to solve this problem. Average speed is the total distance (which we've already found) divided by the total time (which we need to find). Since time is a scalar, add the times for each leg of the journey to get the total time. ∆ t1 =. ∆ s1. MAGNETISM - PRACTICE practice problem 1. Draw the magnetic field around the following arrangements of magnets. Start each field line on a given blue dot and extend it until it hits anotherSIMPLE MACHINES
an instrument designed to transmit or modify the application of power, force or motion. any device that transmits a force or directs its application. Anything that transmits force or directs its application. transferring a force from one place to another. changing the directionof a
PHYSICAL CONSTANTS
electric constant. permitivitty of free space. vacuum permitivitty. 8.8541878128. × 10 −12. C 2 /N m 2. μ 0. magnetic constant. permeability of free space. FISSION – THE PHYSICS HYPERTEXTBOOK variant3. On Tuesday, September 12, 1933, while waiting at the lights to cross the road to the British Museum in Bloomsbury, Leo Szilard, a Hungarian theoretical physicist, had the flash of insight which was to result in the Little Boy and Fat Man bombs being droppedSHOCK WAVES
At transonic speeds the shock wave is a wall of high pressure moving with the object, perpendicular to its velocity. Above the speed of sound, the ratio is less than one and the Mach angle is less than ninety degrees. The faster the object moves, the narrower the cone of high pressure behind it becomes. Measuring the vertex angle is thus aFRAMES OF REFERENCE
Problems practice. Elevator problem. Write something else. Write something different. Write something completely different. conceptual. Is the frame of reference acceleration greater than, less than, or equal to normal Earth gravity on the space shuttle as itSTATICS - PRACTICE
Normal forces are normal — that is, perpendicular to a tangent drawn to a curve or surface. This crate isn't currently going anywhere, so all the forces perpendicular to the incline must cancel. For a static crate on an incline, the force normal to the incline equals the perpendicular component of its weight. N RADIATION – THE PHYSICS HYPERTEXTBOOK f max = : the peak frequency in the spectrum of the thermal radiation emitted by an object: b′ = : Wien's frequency displacement constant (read the symbol as "bee prime"). Again, the choice of units depends on the situation. The SI units is the hertz, but I prefer the gigahertz for peaks in the microwave bands (like the cosmic microwave back ground) and terahertz for peaks in the infrared KINEMATICS AND CALCULUS Calculus is an advanced math topic, but it makes deriving two of the three equations of motion much simpler. By definition, acceleration is the first derivative of velocity with respect to time. Take the operation in that definition and reverse it. Instead of differentiating velocity to find acceleration, integrate accelerationto find velocity.
PERIODIC WAVES
The graph below is a record of sea level heights recorded at Hanimaadhoo, Maldives during the tsunami of 26 December 2004. The data were filtered to eliminate the normal tidal fluctuations, so what you are seeing is the increase in sea level due to the tsunami.POTENTIAL ENERGY
Summary. Potential energy is. the energy associated with the arrangement of objects; the energy due to position of a quantity in a field; Potential energy comes in four fundamental types, one for each of the fundamental forces, and several subtypes . Gravitational potential energy is. the energy associated with the arrangement ofmasses
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
mechanics, thermal physics, waves & optics, electricity & magentism, modern physics, foundations, back matter* Mechanics
* Kinematics
* Motion
* Distance and displacement * Speed and Velocity* Acceleration
* Equations of motion* Free fall
* Graphs of motion
* Kinematics and calculus * Kinematics in two dimensions* Projectiles
* Parametric equations* Dynamics I: Force
* Forces
* Force and mass
* Action-reaction
* Weight
* Dynamics
* Statics
* Friction
* Forces in two dimensions* Centripetal force
* Frames of reference* Energy
* Work
* Energy
* Kinetic energy
* Potential energy
* Conservation of energy* Power
* Simple machines
* Dynamics II: Momentum * Impulse and momentum * Conservation of momentum * Momentum and energy * Momentum in two dimensions* Rotational motion
* Rotational kinematics * Rotational inertia * Rotational dynamics * Rotational statics* Angular momentum
* Rotational energy
* Rolling
* Rotation in two dimensions* Coriolis force
* Planetary motion
* Geocentrism
* Heliocentrism
* Universal gravitation * Orbital mechanics I * Gravitational potential energy * Orbital mechanics II * Gravity of extended bodies* Periodic motion
* Springs
* Simple harmonic oscillator* Pendulums
* Resonance
* Elasticity
* Fluids
* Density
* Pressure
* Buoyancy
* Fluid flow
* Viscosity
* Aerodynamic drag
* Flow regimes
* Thermal physics
* Heat and temperature* Temperature
* Thermal expansion
* The atomic nature of matter* Gas laws
* Kinetic-molecular theory* Phases
* Calorimetry
* Sensible heat
* Latent heat
* Chemical potential energy* Heat transfer
* Conduction
* Convection
* Radiation
* Thermodynamics
* Heat and work
* Pressure-volume diagrams* Engines
* Refrigerators
* Energy and entropy* Absolute zero
* Waves and optics
* Wave phenomena
* The nature of waves* Periodic waves
* Interference and superposition * Interfaces and barriers* Sound
* The nature of sound* Intensity
* Doppler effect (sound)* Shock waves
* Diffraction and interference (sound)* Standing waves
* Beats
* Music and noise
* Physical optics
* The nature of light* Polarization
* Doppler effect (light) * Cerenkov radiation * Diffraction and interference (light) * Thin film interference* Color
* Geometric optics
* Reflection
* Refraction
* Spherical mirrors
* Spherical lenses
* Aberration
* Electricity and magnetism* Electrostatics
* Electric charge
* Coulomb's law
* Electric field
* Electric potential* Gauss's law
* Conductors
* Electrostatic applications* Capacitors
* Dielectrics
* Batteries
* Electric current
* Electric current
* Electric resistance* Electric power
* DC circuits
* Resistors in circuits * Batteries in circuits * Capacitors in circuits* Kirchhoff's rules
* Magnetostatics
* Magnetism
* Electromagnetism
* Ampère's law
* Electromagnetic force* Magnetodynamics
* Electromagnetic induction* Faraday's law
* Lenz' law
* Inductance
* AC circuits
* Alternating current* RC circuits
* RL circuits
* LC circuits
* Electromagnetic waves * Maxwell's equations * Electromagnetic waves * Electromagnetic spectrum* Modern physics
* Relativity
* Space-time
* Mass-energy
* General relativity* Quanta
* Blackbody radiation * Photoelectric effect* X-rays
* Antimatter
* Wave mechanics
* Matter waves
* Atomic models
* Semiconductors
* Condensed matter
* Nuclear physics
* Isotopes
* Radioactive decay
* Half life
* Binding energy
* Fission
* Fusion
* Nucleosynthesis
* Nuclear weapons
* Radiobiology
* Particle physics
* Quantum electrodynamics * Quantum chromodynamics * Quantum flavordynamics * The Standard Model * Beyond the Standard Model* Foundations
* Units
* International system of units * Gaussian system of units * British-American system of units * Miscellaneous units* Time
* Unit conversion
* Measurement
* Significant digits * Order of magnitude* Graphs
* Graphical representation of data* Linear regression
* Curve fitting
* Calculus
* Vectors
* Trigonometry
* Vector addition and subtraction * Vector resolution and components * Vector multiplication* Reference
* Special symbols
* Frequently used equations * Physical constants* Astronomical data
* Periodic table of the elements* People in physics
* Back matter
* Preface
* About this book
* Contact the author* glennelert.us
* Behance
* YouTube
* Affiliated websites* hypertextbook.com
* midwoodscience.org AddThis Sharing Buttons Share to FacebookFacebookShare to TwitterTwitterShare to PrintPrintShare to EmailEmailShare to PinterestPinterestShare toMoreAddThis
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