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GUIDESLAMARCK
In today's human-dominated world, healthy forests require healthy and sustainable management practices. To do this, we must try to understand the myriad processes that affect forest health and that is where our guest comes in. Dr. Matt Russell is an Associate Professor and Extension Specialist for the University of Minnesota and his research focuses on forest ecosystem health.EMMA NEIGEL
In this episode we are joined by Conservation Horticulturist Emma Neigel of the Atlanta Botanical Garden to talk about the intersection of horticulture and conservation. NORTH AMERICA'S CLIMBING FERN I know what some of you may be thinking, "if this is a fern then where are the fronds?" This was my first thought as well. My first guess was aimed at each palmate leaf. PALO VERDE — IN DEFENSE OF PLANTS The common name of “palo verde” is Spanish for “green stick.”. And green they are! Like I said, every inch of this tree gives off a pleasing green hue. Of course, this is a survival strategy to make the most of life in arid climates. Despite typically being found growing along creek beds, infrequent rainfall limits their access to FLORAL PIGMENTS IN A CHANGING WORLD Flowers paint the world in a dazzling array of colors. Some of these we can see and others we cannot. Many plants paint their blooms in special pigments that absorb ultraviolet light, revealing intriguing patterns to pollinators like bees and even some birds that can see well into the UV part of the electromagnetic spectrum. BARK! — IN DEFENSE OF PLANTS Cambium is a layer of actively dividing tissue sandwiched between the xylem and the phloem in the stems and roots of plants. As this layer grows and divides, the inside cells become the xylem whereas the outside cells become the phloem. Successive divisions produce what is known as secondary phloem. This is where the bark begins. THE STERILE FLOWERS OF HYDRANGEA Reproduction isn't cheap, which has led some plants to take a more cost effective rout. In the genus Hydrangea, this means producing large, showy sterile flowers that draw attention to their smaller, less gaudy fertile flowers. These sterile flowers are technically colored up sepals. They don't produce reproductive structures orpollen.
WHEN THE GOING GETS TOUGH, DESERT MISTLETOES COOPERATE When the Going Gets Tough, Desert Mistletoes Cooperate. March 23, 2021. Sure, parasites can be a drain on their host, but for those parasites whose entire life depends on a living host, it doesn’t pay to kill. Such is the case for the desert mistletoe ( Phoradendron californicum ). These plants simply can’t live without the water and TWINSPURS & THEIR POLLINATORS The two front legs of Rediviva females are disproportionately long compared to the rest of their legs. They look a bit strange compared to other bees but see one in action and you will quickly understand what is going on. Rediviva bees are the sole pollinators of Diascia flowers. Attracted by the bright colors, the bees alight on the flowerand
IN DEFENSE OF PLANTSBLOGPODCASTSHOPVIDEOSYMPATRIC SPECIATIONWASPS In Defense of Plants is a celebration of plants for the sake of plants. There is no denying that plants are extremely useful to humanity in many ways, but that isn’t why this exist. Plants are living, breathing, self-replicating organisms that are fighting for survival just like the rest of life on Earth. IN DEFENSE OF PLANTSBLOGHOLLOW LOGSHORTICULTURESUCCULENTSFIELDGUIDESLAMARCK
In today's human-dominated world, healthy forests require healthy and sustainable management practices. To do this, we must try to understand the myriad processes that affect forest health and that is where our guest comes in. Dr. Matt Russell is an Associate Professor and Extension Specialist for the University of Minnesota and his research focuses on forest ecosystem health.EMMA NEIGEL
In this episode we are joined by Conservation Horticulturist Emma Neigel of the Atlanta Botanical Garden to talk about the intersection of horticulture and conservation. NORTH AMERICA'S CLIMBING FERN I know what some of you may be thinking, "if this is a fern then where are the fronds?" This was my first thought as well. My first guess was aimed at each palmate leaf. PALO VERDE — IN DEFENSE OF PLANTS The common name of “palo verde” is Spanish for “green stick.”. And green they are! Like I said, every inch of this tree gives off a pleasing green hue. Of course, this is a survival strategy to make the most of life in arid climates. Despite typically being found growing along creek beds, infrequent rainfall limits their access to FLORAL PIGMENTS IN A CHANGING WORLD Flowers paint the world in a dazzling array of colors. Some of these we can see and others we cannot. Many plants paint their blooms in special pigments that absorb ultraviolet light, revealing intriguing patterns to pollinators like bees and even some birds that can see well into the UV part of the electromagnetic spectrum. BARK! — IN DEFENSE OF PLANTS Cambium is a layer of actively dividing tissue sandwiched between the xylem and the phloem in the stems and roots of plants. As this layer grows and divides, the inside cells become the xylem whereas the outside cells become the phloem. Successive divisions produce what is known as secondary phloem. This is where the bark begins. THE STERILE FLOWERS OF HYDRANGEA Reproduction isn't cheap, which has led some plants to take a more cost effective rout. In the genus Hydrangea, this means producing large, showy sterile flowers that draw attention to their smaller, less gaudy fertile flowers. These sterile flowers are technically colored up sepals. They don't produce reproductive structures orpollen.
WHEN THE GOING GETS TOUGH, DESERT MISTLETOES COOPERATE When the Going Gets Tough, Desert Mistletoes Cooperate. March 23, 2021. Sure, parasites can be a drain on their host, but for those parasites whose entire life depends on a living host, it doesn’t pay to kill. Such is the case for the desert mistletoe ( Phoradendron californicum ). These plants simply can’t live without the water and TWINSPURS & THEIR POLLINATORS The two front legs of Rediviva females are disproportionately long compared to the rest of their legs. They look a bit strange compared to other bees but see one in action and you will quickly understand what is going on. Rediviva bees are the sole pollinators of Diascia flowers. Attracted by the bright colors, the bees alight on the flowerand
INTEGUMENT — IN DEFENSE OF PLANTS Resolving the origins of flowering plants requires an understanding of how their morphology came to be. After all, despite their rapid appearance in the fossil record, flowering plants did not evolve overnight.
FLORAL PIGMENTS IN A CHANGING WORLD Flowers paint the world in a dazzling array of colors. Some of these we can see and others we cannot. Many plants paint their blooms in special pigments that absorb ultraviolet light, revealing intriguing patterns to pollinators like bees and even some birds that can see well into the UV part of the electromagnetic spectrum. THE STERILE FLOWERS OF HYDRANGEA Reproduction isn't cheap, which has led some plants to take a more cost effective rout. In the genus Hydrangea, this means producing large, showy sterile flowers that draw attention to their smaller, less gaudy fertile flowers. These sterile flowers are technically colored up sepals. They don't produce reproductive structures orpollen.
HOW PLANTS PERCEIVE LIGHT How Plants Perceive Light. July 26, 2017. For all but a handful of plants, sunlight is vital to their existence. It provides the energy needed to break molecules of CO2 and water in order to synthesize carbohydrates. It is no wonder then that plants are incredibly attuned to their light environment. They grow towards it, they compete for it MYSTERIOUS FRANKLINIA Mysterious Franklinia. October 2, 2019. Photo by Tom Potterfield licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 2.0. In 1765, a pair of botanists, John and William Bartram, observed "several very curious shrubs" growing in one small area along the banks of the Altamaha River in what is now Georgia. Again in 1773, William Bartram returned to this same area.DIPTEROCARP FORESTS
The point is that, on a global scale, dipterocarp forests have taken a huge hit. Many species within this family are now threatened with extinction. Logging, both legal and illegal, specifically aimed at dipterocarps, has seen the destruction of millions of acres of old growth dipterocarp forests. With them goes all of the life that theysupport.
NORTH AMERICA'S NATIVE BAMBOOS Each differs slightly in its ecology. Giant or river cane (A. gigantea) is a denizen of alluvial forests and swamps as is switch cane (A. tecta), although switch cane seems to be a bit more obligate in its need for swamp-like habitats.Hill cane (A. appalachiana) was only described in 2006 and prefers dry to moist forested slopes and forest edges.. One interesting things about hill cane is thatANCIENT EQUISETUM
Ancient Equisetum. May 21, 2015. Photo by Christian Ostrosky licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 2.0. Whenever you cross paths with an Equisetum, you are looking at a member of the sole surviving genus of a once great lineage. The horsetails, as they are commonly called, hit their peak during the Devonian Era, some 350 + million years ago. UNDERSTANDING THE COCKLEBUR Cocklebur is a bit strange in the seed department as well. Instead of producing multiple seeds complete with hairy parachutes, the cocklebur produces two relatively large seeds within each bur. There is a "top" seed, which sits along the curved, convex side of the bur, and a "bottom" seed that sits along the inner flat surface of the bur AN INTRUIGUING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ANTS AND CACTI Another interesting observation about the cactus/ant mutualism is that it appears that the identity of the ants truly matters. Though defense is the main benefit to the cactus, research suggests that there is a tipping point in how much such defenses benefit cacti. IN DEFENSE OF PLANTSBLOGPODCASTSHOPVIDEOSYMPATRIC SPECIATIONWASPS In Defense of Plants is a celebration of plants for the sake of plants. There is no denying that plants are extremely useful to humanity in many ways, but that isn’t why this exist. Plants are living, breathing, self-replicating organisms that are fighting for survival just like the rest of life on Earth. IN DEFENSE OF PLANTSBLOGHOLLOW LOGSHORTICULTURESUCCULENTSFIELDGUIDESLAMARCK
In today's human-dominated world, healthy forests require healthy and sustainable management practices. To do this, we must try to understand the myriad processes that affect forest health and that is where our guest comes in. Dr. Matt Russell is an Associate Professor and Extension Specialist for the University of Minnesota and his research focuses on forest ecosystem health.EMMA NEIGEL
In this episode we are joined by Conservation Horticulturist Emma Neigel of the Atlanta Botanical Garden to talk about the intersection of horticulture and conservation. NORTH AMERICA'S CLIMBING FERN I know what some of you may be thinking, "if this is a fern then where are the fronds?" This was my first thought as well. My first guess was aimed at each palmate leaf. PALO VERDE — IN DEFENSE OF PLANTS The common name of “palo verde” is Spanish for “green stick.”. And green they are! Like I said, every inch of this tree gives off a pleasing green hue. Of course, this is a survival strategy to make the most of life in arid climates. Despite typically being found growing along creek beds, infrequent rainfall limits their access to FLORAL PIGMENTS IN A CHANGING WORLD Flowers paint the world in a dazzling array of colors. Some of these we can see and others we cannot. Many plants paint their blooms in special pigments that absorb ultraviolet light, revealing intriguing patterns to pollinators like bees and even some birds that can see well into the UV part of the electromagnetic spectrum. BARK! — IN DEFENSE OF PLANTS Cambium is a layer of actively dividing tissue sandwiched between the xylem and the phloem in the stems and roots of plants. As this layer grows and divides, the inside cells become the xylem whereas the outside cells become the phloem. Successive divisions produce what is known as secondary phloem. This is where the bark begins. THE STERILE FLOWERS OF HYDRANGEA Reproduction isn't cheap, which has led some plants to take a more cost effective rout. In the genus Hydrangea, this means producing large, showy sterile flowers that draw attention to their smaller, less gaudy fertile flowers. These sterile flowers are technically colored up sepals. They don't produce reproductive structures orpollen.
WHEN THE GOING GETS TOUGH, DESERT MISTLETOES COOPERATE When the Going Gets Tough, Desert Mistletoes Cooperate. March 23, 2021. Sure, parasites can be a drain on their host, but for those parasites whose entire life depends on a living host, it doesn’t pay to kill. Such is the case for the desert mistletoe ( Phoradendron californicum ). These plants simply can’t live without the water and TWINSPURS & THEIR POLLINATORS The two front legs of Rediviva females are disproportionately long compared to the rest of their legs. They look a bit strange compared to other bees but see one in action and you will quickly understand what is going on. Rediviva bees are the sole pollinators of Diascia flowers. Attracted by the bright colors, the bees alight on the flowerand
IN DEFENSE OF PLANTSBLOGPODCASTSHOPVIDEOSYMPATRIC SPECIATIONWASPS In Defense of Plants is a celebration of plants for the sake of plants. There is no denying that plants are extremely useful to humanity in many ways, but that isn’t why this exist. Plants are living, breathing, self-replicating organisms that are fighting for survival just like the rest of life on Earth. IN DEFENSE OF PLANTSBLOGHOLLOW LOGSHORTICULTURESUCCULENTSFIELDGUIDESLAMARCK
In today's human-dominated world, healthy forests require healthy and sustainable management practices. To do this, we must try to understand the myriad processes that affect forest health and that is where our guest comes in. Dr. Matt Russell is an Associate Professor and Extension Specialist for the University of Minnesota and his research focuses on forest ecosystem health.EMMA NEIGEL
In this episode we are joined by Conservation Horticulturist Emma Neigel of the Atlanta Botanical Garden to talk about the intersection of horticulture and conservation. NORTH AMERICA'S CLIMBING FERN I know what some of you may be thinking, "if this is a fern then where are the fronds?" This was my first thought as well. My first guess was aimed at each palmate leaf. PALO VERDE — IN DEFENSE OF PLANTS The common name of “palo verde” is Spanish for “green stick.”. And green they are! Like I said, every inch of this tree gives off a pleasing green hue. Of course, this is a survival strategy to make the most of life in arid climates. Despite typically being found growing along creek beds, infrequent rainfall limits their access to FLORAL PIGMENTS IN A CHANGING WORLD Flowers paint the world in a dazzling array of colors. Some of these we can see and others we cannot. Many plants paint their blooms in special pigments that absorb ultraviolet light, revealing intriguing patterns to pollinators like bees and even some birds that can see well into the UV part of the electromagnetic spectrum. BARK! — IN DEFENSE OF PLANTS Cambium is a layer of actively dividing tissue sandwiched between the xylem and the phloem in the stems and roots of plants. As this layer grows and divides, the inside cells become the xylem whereas the outside cells become the phloem. Successive divisions produce what is known as secondary phloem. This is where the bark begins. THE STERILE FLOWERS OF HYDRANGEA Reproduction isn't cheap, which has led some plants to take a more cost effective rout. In the genus Hydrangea, this means producing large, showy sterile flowers that draw attention to their smaller, less gaudy fertile flowers. These sterile flowers are technically colored up sepals. They don't produce reproductive structures orpollen.
WHEN THE GOING GETS TOUGH, DESERT MISTLETOES COOPERATE When the Going Gets Tough, Desert Mistletoes Cooperate. March 23, 2021. Sure, parasites can be a drain on their host, but for those parasites whose entire life depends on a living host, it doesn’t pay to kill. Such is the case for the desert mistletoe ( Phoradendron californicum ). These plants simply can’t live without the water and TWINSPURS & THEIR POLLINATORS The two front legs of Rediviva females are disproportionately long compared to the rest of their legs. They look a bit strange compared to other bees but see one in action and you will quickly understand what is going on. Rediviva bees are the sole pollinators of Diascia flowers. Attracted by the bright colors, the bees alight on the flowerand
INTEGUMENT — IN DEFENSE OF PLANTS Resolving the origins of flowering plants requires an understanding of how their morphology came to be. After all, despite their rapid appearance in the fossil record, flowering plants did not evolve overnight.
FLORAL PIGMENTS IN A CHANGING WORLD Flowers paint the world in a dazzling array of colors. Some of these we can see and others we cannot. Many plants paint their blooms in special pigments that absorb ultraviolet light, revealing intriguing patterns to pollinators like bees and even some birds that can see well into the UV part of the electromagnetic spectrum. THE STERILE FLOWERS OF HYDRANGEA Reproduction isn't cheap, which has led some plants to take a more cost effective rout. In the genus Hydrangea, this means producing large, showy sterile flowers that draw attention to their smaller, less gaudy fertile flowers. These sterile flowers are technically colored up sepals. They don't produce reproductive structures orpollen.
HOW PLANTS PERCEIVE LIGHT How Plants Perceive Light. July 26, 2017. For all but a handful of plants, sunlight is vital to their existence. It provides the energy needed to break molecules of CO2 and water in order to synthesize carbohydrates. It is no wonder then that plants are incredibly attuned to their light environment. They grow towards it, they compete for it MYSTERIOUS FRANKLINIA Mysterious Franklinia. October 2, 2019. Photo by Tom Potterfield licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 2.0. In 1765, a pair of botanists, John and William Bartram, observed "several very curious shrubs" growing in one small area along the banks of the Altamaha River in what is now Georgia. Again in 1773, William Bartram returned to this same area.DIPTEROCARP FORESTS
The point is that, on a global scale, dipterocarp forests have taken a huge hit. Many species within this family are now threatened with extinction. Logging, both legal and illegal, specifically aimed at dipterocarps, has seen the destruction of millions of acres of old growth dipterocarp forests. With them goes all of the life that theysupport.
NORTH AMERICA'S NATIVE BAMBOOS Each differs slightly in its ecology. Giant or river cane (A. gigantea) is a denizen of alluvial forests and swamps as is switch cane (A. tecta), although switch cane seems to be a bit more obligate in its need for swamp-like habitats.Hill cane (A. appalachiana) was only described in 2006 and prefers dry to moist forested slopes and forest edges.. One interesting things about hill cane is thatANCIENT EQUISETUM
Ancient Equisetum. May 21, 2015. Photo by Christian Ostrosky licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 2.0. Whenever you cross paths with an Equisetum, you are looking at a member of the sole surviving genus of a once great lineage. The horsetails, as they are commonly called, hit their peak during the Devonian Era, some 350 + million years ago. UNDERSTANDING THE COCKLEBUR Cocklebur is a bit strange in the seed department as well. Instead of producing multiple seeds complete with hairy parachutes, the cocklebur produces two relatively large seeds within each bur. There is a "top" seed, which sits along the curved, convex side of the bur, and a "bottom" seed that sits along the inner flat surface of the bur AN INTRUIGUING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ANTS AND CACTI Another interesting observation about the cactus/ant mutualism is that it appears that the identity of the ants truly matters. Though defense is the main benefit to the cactus, research suggests that there is a tipping point in how much such defenses benefit cacti. IN DEFENSE OF PLANTSBLOGPODCASTSHOPVIDEOSYMPATRIC SPECIATIONWASPS In Defense of Plants is a celebration of plants for the sake of plants. There is no denying that plants are extremely useful to humanity in many ways, but that isn’t why this exist. Plants are living, breathing, self-replicating organisms that are fighting for survival just like the rest of life on Earth. IN DEFENSE OF PLANTS 22.99. Limited Edition In Defense of Plants Aroid Print (tan) 22.99. sold out. In Defense of Plants: An Exploration into the Wonder of Plants (Hardcover) 18.00. sold out. In Defense of Plants: An Exploration into the Wonder of Plants Signed Copy (Hardcover) 35.00. IN DEFENSE OF PLANTS In today's human-dominated world, healthy forests require healthy and sustainable management practices. To do this, we must try to understand the myriad processes that affect forest health and that is where our guest comes in. Dr. Matt Russell is an Associate Professor and Extension Specialist for the University of Minnesota and his research focuses on forest ecosystem health. HOW PLANTS PERCEIVE LIGHT How Plants Perceive Light. July 26, 2017. For all but a handful of plants, sunlight is vital to their existence. It provides the energy needed to break molecules of CO2 and water in order to synthesize carbohydrates. It is no wonder then that plants are incredibly attuned to their light environment. They grow towards it, they compete for it BARK! — IN DEFENSE OF PLANTS Cambium is a layer of actively dividing tissue sandwiched between the xylem and the phloem in the stems and roots of plants. As this layer grows and divides, the inside cells become the xylem whereas the outside cells become the phloem. Successive divisions produce what is known as secondary phloem. This is where the bark begins. THE STERILE FLOWERS OF HYDRANGEA Reproduction isn't cheap, which has led some plants to take a more cost effective rout. In the genus Hydrangea, this means producing large, showy sterile flowers that draw attention to their smaller, less gaudy fertile flowers. These sterile flowers are technically colored up sepals. They don't produce reproductive structures orpollen.
TWINSPURS & THEIR POLLINATORS The two front legs of Rediviva females are disproportionately long compared to the rest of their legs. They look a bit strange compared to other bees but see one in action and you will quickly understand what is going on. Rediviva bees are the sole pollinators of Diascia flowers. Attracted by the bright colors, the bees alight on the flowerand
SOMETHING SMELLS...
Something Smells April 2, 2015. Plant nurseries are a dangerous place for me. Well, not really me so much as my wallet. I am always on the lookout for new and interesting plant friends to bring home. I recently visited a local nursery that has 4 hoop houses worth of plants to ogle. As I was walking the crowded alleyways between rowafter row
GERMINATING A SEED AFTER 32,000 YEARS Germinating a Seed After 32,000 Years. November 4, 2015. What you are looking at are plants that were grown from seeds buried in permafrost for nearly 32,000 years. The seeds were discovered on the banks of the Kolyma River in Siberia. The river is constantly eroding into the permafrost and uncovering frozen Pleistocene relics. A NEW CASE OF LIZARD POLLINATION FROM SOUTH AFRICA A New Case of Lizard Pollination from South Africa. April 22, 2019. With its compact growth habit and small, inconspicuous flowers tucked under its leaves, it seems like Guthriea capensis doesn’t want to be noticed. Indeed, it has earned itself the common name of '“hidden flower.”. That’s not to say this plant is unsuccessful. IN DEFENSE OF PLANTSBLOGPODCASTSHOPVIDEOSYMPATRIC SPECIATIONWASPS In Defense of Plants is a celebration of plants for the sake of plants. There is no denying that plants are extremely useful to humanity in many ways, but that isn’t why this exist. Plants are living, breathing, self-replicating organisms that are fighting for survival just like the rest of life on Earth. IN DEFENSE OF PLANTS 22.99. Limited Edition In Defense of Plants Aroid Print (tan) 22.99. sold out. In Defense of Plants: An Exploration into the Wonder of Plants (Hardcover) 18.00. sold out. In Defense of Plants: An Exploration into the Wonder of Plants Signed Copy (Hardcover) 35.00. IN DEFENSE OF PLANTS In today's human-dominated world, healthy forests require healthy and sustainable management practices. To do this, we must try to understand the myriad processes that affect forest health and that is where our guest comes in. Dr. Matt Russell is an Associate Professor and Extension Specialist for the University of Minnesota and his research focuses on forest ecosystem health. HOW PLANTS PERCEIVE LIGHT How Plants Perceive Light. July 26, 2017. For all but a handful of plants, sunlight is vital to their existence. It provides the energy needed to break molecules of CO2 and water in order to synthesize carbohydrates. It is no wonder then that plants are incredibly attuned to their light environment. They grow towards it, they compete for it BARK! — IN DEFENSE OF PLANTS Cambium is a layer of actively dividing tissue sandwiched between the xylem and the phloem in the stems and roots of plants. As this layer grows and divides, the inside cells become the xylem whereas the outside cells become the phloem. Successive divisions produce what is known as secondary phloem. This is where the bark begins. THE STERILE FLOWERS OF HYDRANGEA Reproduction isn't cheap, which has led some plants to take a more cost effective rout. In the genus Hydrangea, this means producing large, showy sterile flowers that draw attention to their smaller, less gaudy fertile flowers. These sterile flowers are technically colored up sepals. They don't produce reproductive structures orpollen.
TWINSPURS & THEIR POLLINATORS The two front legs of Rediviva females are disproportionately long compared to the rest of their legs. They look a bit strange compared to other bees but see one in action and you will quickly understand what is going on. Rediviva bees are the sole pollinators of Diascia flowers. Attracted by the bright colors, the bees alight on the flowerand
SOMETHING SMELLS...
Something Smells April 2, 2015. Plant nurseries are a dangerous place for me. Well, not really me so much as my wallet. I am always on the lookout for new and interesting plant friends to bring home. I recently visited a local nursery that has 4 hoop houses worth of plants to ogle. As I was walking the crowded alleyways between rowafter row
GERMINATING A SEED AFTER 32,000 YEARS Germinating a Seed After 32,000 Years. November 4, 2015. What you are looking at are plants that were grown from seeds buried in permafrost for nearly 32,000 years. The seeds were discovered on the banks of the Kolyma River in Siberia. The river is constantly eroding into the permafrost and uncovering frozen Pleistocene relics. A NEW CASE OF LIZARD POLLINATION FROM SOUTH AFRICA A New Case of Lizard Pollination from South Africa. April 22, 2019. With its compact growth habit and small, inconspicuous flowers tucked under its leaves, it seems like Guthriea capensis doesn’t want to be noticed. Indeed, it has earned itself the common name of '“hidden flower.”. That’s not to say this plant is unsuccessful. IN DEFENSE OF PLANTS 22.99. Limited Edition In Defense of Plants Aroid Print (tan) 22.99. sold out. In Defense of Plants: An Exploration into the Wonder of Plants (Hardcover) 18.00. sold out. In Defense of Plants: An Exploration into the Wonder of Plants Signed Copy (Hardcover) 35.00. EP. 320 - THE PREHISTORIC PATH TO FLOWERING PLANTS In Defense of Plants' Matt Candeias talks with Sir Peter Crane about a group of fossils that provide novel insights into the origins offlowering plants.
SIR PETER CRANE
Resolving the origins of flowering plants requires an understanding of how their morphology came to be. After all, despite their rapidappearance in the
IN DEFENSE OF PLANTS The flora of the southern Appalachian Mountains will never cease to amaze me. Every time I visit this region of the world, I am blown away by the sheer number of plant species that grow on and around theseancient peaks.
OAK SPRING GARDEN FOUNDATION Resolving the origins of flowering plants requires an understanding of how their morphology came to be. After all, despite their rapidappearance in the
THE STERILE FLOWERS OF HYDRANGEA Reproduction isn't cheap, which has led some plants to take a more cost effective rout. In the genus Hydrangea, this means producing large, showy sterile flowers that draw attention to their smaller, less gaudy fertile flowers. These sterile flowers are technically colored up sepals. They don't produce reproductive structures orpollen.
WHEN THE GOING GETS TOUGH, DESERT MISTLETOES COOPERATE When the Going Gets Tough, Desert Mistletoes Cooperate. March 23, 2021. Sure, parasites can be a drain on their host, but for those parasites whose entire life depends on a living host, it doesn’t pay to kill. Such is the case for the desert mistletoe ( Phoradendron californicum ). These plants simply can’t live without the water and NORTH AMERICA'S NATIVE BAMBOOS Each differs slightly in its ecology. Giant or river cane (A. gigantea) is a denizen of alluvial forests and swamps as is switch cane (A. tecta), although switch cane seems to be a bit more obligate in its need for swamp-like habitats.Hill cane (A. appalachiana) was only described in 2006 and prefers dry to moist forested slopes and forest edges.. One interesting things about hill cane is that LEARN TO LOVE BLUEVINE The biggest problem people seem to have with bluevine is that it can be very aggressive in disturbed soils. In many places it is considered a serious agricultural pest. Like its milkweed cousins, its seeds erupt from pods and are born on light, feathery filaments. Because of this they can travel great distances on the slightest breeze. ON SOIL AND SPECIATION These soils have a more basic pH and dominate the low lying areas of the island. Growing in calcarenite soils is stressful as they are poor in nutrients. This physiological stress has caused a shift in the way in which the flowers of H. forsteriana mature. When found growing on richer volcanic soils, the researchers noted that the flowers IN DEFENSE OF PLANTSBLOGPODCASTSHOPVIDEOSYMPATRIC SPECIATIONWASPS In Defense of Plants is a celebration of plants for the sake of plants. There is no denying that plants are extremely useful to humanity in many ways, but that isn’t why this exist. Plants are living, breathing, self-replicating organisms that are fighting for survival just like the rest of life on Earth. IN DEFENSE OF PLANTS 22.99. Limited Edition In Defense of Plants Aroid Print (tan) 22.99. sold out. In Defense of Plants: An Exploration into the Wonder of Plants (Hardcover) 18.00. sold out. In Defense of Plants: An Exploration into the Wonder of Plants Signed Copy (Hardcover) 35.00. IN DEFENSE OF PLANTS In today's human-dominated world, healthy forests require healthy and sustainable management practices. To do this, we must try to understand the myriad processes that affect forest health and that is where our guest comes in. Dr. Matt Russell is an Associate Professor and Extension Specialist for the University of Minnesota and his research focuses on forest ecosystem health. HOW PLANTS PERCEIVE LIGHT How Plants Perceive Light. July 26, 2017. For all but a handful of plants, sunlight is vital to their existence. It provides the energy needed to break molecules of CO2 and water in order to synthesize carbohydrates. It is no wonder then that plants are incredibly attuned to their light environment. They grow towards it, they compete for it BARK! — IN DEFENSE OF PLANTS Cambium is a layer of actively dividing tissue sandwiched between the xylem and the phloem in the stems and roots of plants. As this layer grows and divides, the inside cells become the xylem whereas the outside cells become the phloem. Successive divisions produce what is known as secondary phloem. This is where the bark begins. THE STERILE FLOWERS OF HYDRANGEA Reproduction isn't cheap, which has led some plants to take a more cost effective rout. In the genus Hydrangea, this means producing large, showy sterile flowers that draw attention to their smaller, less gaudy fertile flowers. These sterile flowers are technically colored up sepals. They don't produce reproductive structures orpollen.
TWINSPURS & THEIR POLLINATORS The two front legs of Rediviva females are disproportionately long compared to the rest of their legs. They look a bit strange compared to other bees but see one in action and you will quickly understand what is going on. Rediviva bees are the sole pollinators of Diascia flowers. Attracted by the bright colors, the bees alight on the flowerand
SOMETHING SMELLS...
Something Smells April 2, 2015. Plant nurseries are a dangerous place for me. Well, not really me so much as my wallet. I am always on the lookout for new and interesting plant friends to bring home. I recently visited a local nursery that has 4 hoop houses worth of plants to ogle. As I was walking the crowded alleyways between rowafter row
GERMINATING A SEED AFTER 32,000 YEARS Germinating a Seed After 32,000 Years. November 4, 2015. What you are looking at are plants that were grown from seeds buried in permafrost for nearly 32,000 years. The seeds were discovered on the banks of the Kolyma River in Siberia. The river is constantly eroding into the permafrost and uncovering frozen Pleistocene relics. A NEW CASE OF LIZARD POLLINATION FROM SOUTH AFRICA A New Case of Lizard Pollination from South Africa. April 22, 2019. With its compact growth habit and small, inconspicuous flowers tucked under its leaves, it seems like Guthriea capensis doesn’t want to be noticed. Indeed, it has earned itself the common name of '“hidden flower.”. That’s not to say this plant is unsuccessful. IN DEFENSE OF PLANTSBLOGPODCASTSHOPVIDEOSYMPATRIC SPECIATIONWASPS In Defense of Plants is a celebration of plants for the sake of plants. There is no denying that plants are extremely useful to humanity in many ways, but that isn’t why this exist. Plants are living, breathing, self-replicating organisms that are fighting for survival just like the rest of life on Earth. IN DEFENSE OF PLANTS 22.99. Limited Edition In Defense of Plants Aroid Print (tan) 22.99. sold out. In Defense of Plants: An Exploration into the Wonder of Plants (Hardcover) 18.00. sold out. In Defense of Plants: An Exploration into the Wonder of Plants Signed Copy (Hardcover) 35.00. IN DEFENSE OF PLANTS In today's human-dominated world, healthy forests require healthy and sustainable management practices. To do this, we must try to understand the myriad processes that affect forest health and that is where our guest comes in. Dr. Matt Russell is an Associate Professor and Extension Specialist for the University of Minnesota and his research focuses on forest ecosystem health. HOW PLANTS PERCEIVE LIGHT How Plants Perceive Light. July 26, 2017. For all but a handful of plants, sunlight is vital to their existence. It provides the energy needed to break molecules of CO2 and water in order to synthesize carbohydrates. It is no wonder then that plants are incredibly attuned to their light environment. They grow towards it, they compete for it BARK! — IN DEFENSE OF PLANTS Cambium is a layer of actively dividing tissue sandwiched between the xylem and the phloem in the stems and roots of plants. As this layer grows and divides, the inside cells become the xylem whereas the outside cells become the phloem. Successive divisions produce what is known as secondary phloem. This is where the bark begins. THE STERILE FLOWERS OF HYDRANGEA Reproduction isn't cheap, which has led some plants to take a more cost effective rout. In the genus Hydrangea, this means producing large, showy sterile flowers that draw attention to their smaller, less gaudy fertile flowers. These sterile flowers are technically colored up sepals. They don't produce reproductive structures orpollen.
TWINSPURS & THEIR POLLINATORS The two front legs of Rediviva females are disproportionately long compared to the rest of their legs. They look a bit strange compared to other bees but see one in action and you will quickly understand what is going on. Rediviva bees are the sole pollinators of Diascia flowers. Attracted by the bright colors, the bees alight on the flowerand
SOMETHING SMELLS...
Something Smells April 2, 2015. Plant nurseries are a dangerous place for me. Well, not really me so much as my wallet. I am always on the lookout for new and interesting plant friends to bring home. I recently visited a local nursery that has 4 hoop houses worth of plants to ogle. As I was walking the crowded alleyways between rowafter row
GERMINATING A SEED AFTER 32,000 YEARS Germinating a Seed After 32,000 Years. November 4, 2015. What you are looking at are plants that were grown from seeds buried in permafrost for nearly 32,000 years. The seeds were discovered on the banks of the Kolyma River in Siberia. The river is constantly eroding into the permafrost and uncovering frozen Pleistocene relics. A NEW CASE OF LIZARD POLLINATION FROM SOUTH AFRICA A New Case of Lizard Pollination from South Africa. April 22, 2019. With its compact growth habit and small, inconspicuous flowers tucked under its leaves, it seems like Guthriea capensis doesn’t want to be noticed. Indeed, it has earned itself the common name of '“hidden flower.”. That’s not to say this plant is unsuccessful. IN DEFENSE OF PLANTS 22.99. Limited Edition In Defense of Plants Aroid Print (tan) 22.99. sold out. In Defense of Plants: An Exploration into the Wonder of Plants (Hardcover) 18.00. sold out. In Defense of Plants: An Exploration into the Wonder of Plants Signed Copy (Hardcover) 35.00. EP. 320 - THE PREHISTORIC PATH TO FLOWERING PLANTS In Defense of Plants' Matt Candeias talks with Sir Peter Crane about a group of fossils that provide novel insights into the origins offlowering plants.
SIR PETER CRANE
Resolving the origins of flowering plants requires an understanding of how their morphology came to be. After all, despite their rapidappearance in the
IN DEFENSE OF PLANTS The flora of the southern Appalachian Mountains will never cease to amaze me. Every time I visit this region of the world, I am blown away by the sheer number of plant species that grow on and around theseancient peaks.
ANGIOSPERM EVOLUTION Resolving the origins of flowering plants requires an understanding of how their morphology came to be. After all, despite their rapidappearance in the
THE STERILE FLOWERS OF HYDRANGEA Reproduction isn't cheap, which has led some plants to take a more cost effective rout. In the genus Hydrangea, this means producing large, showy sterile flowers that draw attention to their smaller, less gaudy fertile flowers. These sterile flowers are technically colored up sepals. They don't produce reproductive structures orpollen.
WHEN THE GOING GETS TOUGH, DESERT MISTLETOES COOPERATE When the Going Gets Tough, Desert Mistletoes Cooperate. March 23, 2021. Sure, parasites can be a drain on their host, but for those parasites whose entire life depends on a living host, it doesn’t pay to kill. Such is the case for the desert mistletoe ( Phoradendron californicum ). These plants simply can’t live without the water and NORTH AMERICA'S NATIVE BAMBOOS Each differs slightly in its ecology. Giant or river cane (A. gigantea) is a denizen of alluvial forests and swamps as is switch cane (A. tecta), although switch cane seems to be a bit more obligate in its need for swamp-like habitats.Hill cane (A. appalachiana) was only described in 2006 and prefers dry to moist forested slopes and forest edges.. One interesting things about hill cane is that LEARN TO LOVE BLUEVINE The biggest problem people seem to have with bluevine is that it can be very aggressive in disturbed soils. In many places it is considered a serious agricultural pest. Like its milkweed cousins, its seeds erupt from pods and are born on light, feathery filaments. Because of this they can travel great distances on the slightest breeze. ON SOIL AND SPECIATION These soils have a more basic pH and dominate the low lying areas of the island. Growing in calcarenite soils is stressful as they are poor in nutrients. This physiological stress has caused a shift in the way in which the flowers of H. forsteriana mature. When found growing on richer volcanic soils, the researchers noted that the flowersNo results found.
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WHEN TRILLIUM FLOWERS GO GREENJune 1, 2021
The first time I encountered a white trillium (_Trillium grandiflorum_) with green stripes on its flowers, I thought I had found a new variant. I excitedly took a bunch of pictures and, upon returning home, shared them among friends. It didn’t take long for someone far more informed than me to point out that this was not a new variant of this beloved plant. What I had found was signs of aninfection.
The green stripes on the petals are the result of a very specific bacterial infection. The bacteria responsible belongs to a group of bacterial parasites collectively referred to as phytoplasmas. Phytoplasmas are not unique to trillium. In fact, these bacteria can be found around the world and infect many different kinds of plants from coconuts to sugarcane. Indeed, most of the research on phytoplasmas is motivated by their impacts on agriculture. Despite the damage they can cause, their natural history is absolutelyfascinating.
Phytoplasmas are obligate parasites. They can only live long-term inside the phloem of their preferred host plants. Once inside the plant, phytoplasmas begin tinkering with cell expression, causing an array of different symptoms that (to the best of my knowledge) depend on their botanical host. In the case of trillium, phytoplasma infection causes a change in the flower petals. By altering gene expression, petal cells becoming increasingly leaf-like, resulting in the green striping I had observed. That isn’t all the phytoplasma does either. Infections usually result in complete sterilization of the flower. I have even heard some reports that the infected plants are also weakened to the point that they eventually die. Why the phytoplasma do this has to do with their bizarre life cycle. Now, to be fair, much of what I have been able to gather on the subject comes from research done on other plant species. Still, there are enough commonalities among phytoplasma infections that I strongly suspect they apply to the trillium system as well. Nevertheless, take what I am saying here with a grain of salt. As mentioned, phytoplasma can only exist long-term within the phloem of their plant host. They don’t produce any sort of fruiting bodies, nor are they transferred by air or contact with tissues. This creates a bit of an issue when it comes to finding new hosts, especially if infection inevitably results in the death of the plant. This is the point in which a vector must enter the picture. The vector in question in many cases are sap-feeding insects like leafhoppers. Leafhoppers use their needle-like proboscis to pierce the phloem and suck out sap. It’s this feed behavior that phytoplasma capitalize on to complete their lifecycle. Moreover, the phytoplasma don’t do so passively. Just as the phytoplasma alter the gene expression in the petal cells, they can also alter the expression of genes involved in plant defenses. Research on infected _Arabidopsis_ plants has shown that phytoplasma cause the plant to decrease production of a hormone called jasmonate. This is fascinating because jasmonate is involved in defending plants against herbivory. It was found that when plants produced less jesmonate, leafhoppers were 30%-60% more likely to lay eggs on those plants. Essentially, the phytoplasma are reducing the plants’ defenses in such a way that there is a greater chance that they will be fed on by a greater number of sap-suckers. As leafhoppers feed on the sap of infected plants, they inevitably suck up plenty of phytoplasma in the process. Through a complex series of events, the ingested phytoplasma eventually make their way into the salivary glands of the leafhopper. Then, as the leafhopper moves from plant to plant, piercing the phloem to feed, it inevitably transfers some of the phytoplasma in its saliva into a new host, thus completing the lifecycle of these plant parasites. To bring it back to those green stripes on the trillium flowers, I suspect that by altering the petal cells to look more like leaves, the phytoplasma may be “encouraging” leafhoppers to concentrate their feeding on infected tissues. However, this is purely speculation on my part. The lack of data outside the agricultural realm represents an important scientific void that needs filling.Further Reading:
In Parasites Tags Trillium , Trillium grandiflorum, phytoplasma
, mycoplasma , leafhopper, plant parasites ,
plant diseases
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ROADSIDE SEEDING AND BLUEBONNET GENETICSMay 18, 2021
Photo by Adam Baker licensedunder CC BY-NC 2.0
The mass blooming of bluebonnets (_Lupinus texensis_) is truly one of southern North America’s most stunning natural spectacles. Celebrated across its native range, the bluebonnet has greatly benefited from supplemental planting by humans. Indeed, in states like Texas, hundreds of miles of roadsides are seeded with bluebonnets every year and the end result can be spectacular. The popularity of mass seeding of this wonderful species has led some to ask how the practice may be affecting the genetic diversity of the species throughout its range. Before we get into population genetics, it is worth getting to know this plant a bit better. Bluebonnets are a type of winter annual lupine endemic to southern Texas and northern Mexico. Their highly camouflaged seeds usually begin to germinate late in the fall after enough weathering has weakened the hard seed coat the protects the embryo. Seedlings remain small throughout fall and winter, rarely growing more than a few tiny, palmate leaves. Once spring arrives,growth accelerates.
Within a few short weeks, most individuals will have already pushed up a spike chock full of their characteristic blue and white flowers. Their main pollinators are bumblebees such as the American bumblebee (_Bombus pensylvanicus_). Once pollinated, plants don’t waste any time producing seeds. Bluebonnets utilize an explosive seed dispersal mechanism, which can be pretty fun to witness in person. As the pods mature, they gradually dry out, creating a lot of tension. Eventually, the tension within the pod becomes so great that the whole structure gives in and explodes, launching seeds as far as 13 feet (4 m) away from the parent plant where they will wait until fall returns. Photo by Danny Barron licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 Although 13 feet may sound like a decent distance for a plant the size of a bluebonnet to launch its seeds, it pales in comparison to many other forms of seed dispersal. As such, one would expect bluebonnets within any given population to be more closely related to one another than they would be to bluebonnets growing in other, more distant populations. It is this assumption that led scientists to ask how intentional seeding of bluebonnets may be affecting the genetics of these plants. Before we jump into their findings, I first want to make one thing very clear. I am in no way disparaging intentional seeding of native plants, especially not by municipalities! I think the practice of seeding with native plants is vital to any environmental management practice we humans undertake. That being said, it is important that we try to understand how any of our actions may be impacting any aspect of biodiversity. Now, onto the research. By sampling the DNA of both natural and intentionally planted populations across a wide swath of bluebonnet’s endemic range, scientists revealed an intriguing picture of their genetic structure. Simply put, there is surprisingly little. Where they expected to find genetic differences among populations, they instead found a lot of uniformity. It is almost as if populations were mixing their genetic material across the range of the species. There are a few possible explanations that could explain this pattern. For one, it is possible that estimates of seed dispersal in this species are vastly underestimated. Perhaps seed dispersal events regularly exceed previous estimates of around 13 feet. Along a similar line of reasoning, it is also possible that bluebonnets don’t rely solely on ballistics to get their seeds out into the environment. If birds or mammals occasionally move seeds long distances, this could eventually lead to genetic mixing among different populations. However, such possibilities are unlikely given the nature of bluebonnet seeds and the fact that animals are far more likely to act as seed predators for bluebonnets than seed dispersers. Scientists have also put forth the possibility that bluebonnets in both natural and cultivate populations simply haven’t been isolated long enough for genetic differences to emerge among populations. However, this does not explain why there is so few genetic differences among widely separated natural populations. The most likely reason why bluebonnets are so alike genetically is intentional planting. Though plenty of effort is put into ensuring that bluebonnet plantings are done using seeds sourced within 124 miles (200 km) from the planting site, we simply can’t rule out the idea that genes from individuals sourced from cultivation are not completely swamping the gene pools of wild populations as they are sowed along roadsides and into other planting projects. To be fair, though these findings are compelling, we can’t necessarily jump to any conclusions as to whether such genetic swamping is a net negative or net positive for bluebonnets across their range. The scientists involved with the study do mention that swamping of fractured wild bluebonnet populations with genes of cultivated individuals could prove beneficial for the species, especially as the impact of human development continues to increase. It is possible that cultivated individuals that are selected because they perform well in human-dominated environments are introducing genes into wild populations that may allow them to cope with the increased human disturbances. The alternative argument to that point is that we are swamping wild populations with potentially deleterious alleles at a faster rate than natural selection can purge them from the population. If this is the case, we may see a gradual decline in some populations that grow more and more out of sync with their local environment. Though it is far too early to draw any hard fast conclusions about the impacts of genetic swamping, the genetic patterns that have been uncovered among bluebonnets are important to document. Now that we know that genetic diversity is low across populations, we can begin to dive deeper into both the mechanisms that created said patterns and their impacts on various populations. Once again, this is not an argument against intentional seeding and planting of native plants. Instead, it is a nice reminder that even the best intentions can have vast and unintended consequences that we need to study in more detail.Further Reading:
In Evolution , General BotanyTags bluebonnets
, Lupinus texensis
, lupine , Bombus
pensylvanicus
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THE AMERICAN SMOKETREEMay 10, 2021
Photo by Andrew Ward licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0 I am a sucker for smoketrees (_Cotinus_ spp.). These members of THE CASHEW FAMILY (ANACARDIACEAE) are a common sight around my town and really put on a dazzling show from late spring through fall. When I finally got around to putting a name to these trees, I was a little bit bummed to realize that all of the specimens in town are representatives of the Eurasian species, _Cotinus coggygria_, but it didn’t take me long to find out that North America has it’s own fascinating representative of the genus. The American smoketree (_Cotinus obovatus_) is not terribly common in the wild or cultivation. Today, it exhibits a suffuse distribution through parts of southern North America, with disjunct populations occurring along the Ozark Plateau of Arkansas and Missouri, the Arkansas River in eastern Oklahoma, the Cumberland Plateau in northeastern Alabama, Tennessee, and Georgia, and the Edwards Plateau in west-central Texas. The major habitat feature that unites these populations is soil. All of them are said to grow on rocky, calcareous soils prone to drought. Photo by Megan Hansen licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0 It is an interesting distribution to say the least. I haven’t found too much in the way of an explanation for why the American smoketree is limited to calcareous soils in the wild. Apparently it is fairly adaptable to different soil types in cultivation. Perhaps competition with other species limits this tree to harsh conditions. It isn’t a big species by most standards. The American smoketree generally produces multiple stems and only occasionally reaches heights of 30 feet (9 meters) or more in most circumstances. One phrase that gets repeated with some frequency is that the American smoketree likely represents a relictual species. Though hard to prove without ample fossil evidence, it seems many experts believe that American smoketrees (and the genus _Cotinus_ in general) were far more common and widespread in the past than they are today. Indeed, the fossil remains of a species named _Cotinus cretaceus_ (sometimes _C. cretacea_) were found in Alaska and date back to the late Cretaceous. Given that the American smoketree’s closest living relatives are found throughout parts of Europe and Asia, such evidence suggests that this genus spread into North America during a period when land bridges connected the two continents and has since been reduced to scattered populations of this single NorthAmerican species.
Photo by Andrey Zharkikh licensed under CC BY 2.0 European colonization of North America did not help the American smoketree either. American smoketree sap can be processed into a yellow dye, which was highly coveted during the American Civil War. Its rot-resistant wood was also widely used for fence posts. At least one source I found indicated that the tree was cut to near extirpation in many areas for these reasons. Luckily today, with harvesting pressures largely a thing of the past, the American smoketree has rebounded enough that it is currently considered a species of leastconcern.
The American smoketree has also benefited from some minor popularity in cultivation. Like its Eurasian cousins, the appeal of this species comes from its colorful foliage, wonderfully flaky bark, and billowy inflorescences. Its egg-shaped leaves emerge in spring and are silky and pink. As spring gives way to summer, the leaves gradually turn a pleasing shade of blueish-green. Come fall, the leaves paint the landscape in bright red until they are shed. Late spring is generally the blooming time for American smoketree. Photo by geneva_wirth licensedunder CC BY-NC 2.0
Photo by peganum licensedunder CC BY-SA 2.0
Its tiny, inconspicuous flowers are borne on large, branching panicles. Each panicle is covered in tiny hairs that apparently continue to grow well after the flowers have been pollinated. This is where the name smoketree comes from. From afar, a tree covered in panicles looks as if it is billowing dense clouds of smoke from its canopy. The whole spectacle is stunning to say the least and I just wish this species was more popular than its cousins. All in all, the American smoketree is a truly interesting species. From its fractured distribution and curious history to its status as an obscure native tree in cultivation, there are a lot of reasons to love this species. Though related to plants like poison ivy (_Toxicodendron_ spp.), smoketrees only rarely cause dermatitis in particularly susceptible individuals. I hope I get the chance to see an American smoketree in the wild some day.Further Reading:
In Paleobotany , Trees Tags Cotinus obovatus, Cotinus coggygria
, Cotinus ,
Anacardiaceae , smoketree , American smoketree, native trees ,
relict species , Cotinus cretaceus, Cotinus cretacea
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THE FUTURE OF NEW ZEALAND'S SHRUBBY TORORARO LIES IN CULTIVATIONMay 2, 2021
Photo by Jon Sullivan licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0 I was watching a gardening show hosted by one of my favorite gardeners, CAROL KLEIN,
when she introduced viewers to a beautiful, divaricating shrub whose branching structure looked like a dense tracery of orange twigs. She referred to the shrub as a wiggy wig and remarked on its beauty and form before moving on to another wonderful plant. I was taken aback by the structure of the shrub and had to learn more. Certainly its form had to be the result of delicate pruning and selective breeding. Imagine my surprise when I found its growth habit was inherent to this wonderful and rare species. The wiggy wig or shrubby tororaro is known to science as _Muehlenbeckia astonii_. It is a member of the buckwheat family (Polygonaceae) endemic to grey scrub habitats of eastern New Zealand. Though this species is widely cultivated for its unique appearance, the shrubby tororaro is not faring well in the wild. For reasons I will cover in a bit, this unique shrub is considered endangered. To understand some of these threats as well as what it will take to bring it back from the brink, we must first take a closer look at itsecology.
Photo by WJV&DB
licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 As mentioned, the shrubby tororaro is endemic to grey scrub habitats of eastern New Zealand. It is a long lived species, with individuals living upwards of 80 years inder the right conditions. Because its habitat is rather dry, the shrubby tororaro grows a deep taproot that allows it to access water deep within the soil. That is not to say that it doesn’t have to worry about drought. Indeed, the shrubby tororaro also has a deciduous habit, dropping most if not all of its tiny, heart-shaped leaves when conditions become too dry. During the wetter winter months, its divaricating twigs become bathed in tiny, cream colored flowers that are very reminiscent of the buckwheat family. From a reproductive standpoint, its flowers are quiteinteresting.
The shrubby tororaro is gynodioecious, which means individual shrubs produce either only female flowers or what is referred to as ‘inconstant male flowers.’ Essentially what this means is that certain individuals will produce some perfect flowers that have functional male and female parts. This reproductive strategy is thought to increase the chances of cross pollination among unrelated individuals when populations are large enough. Following successful pollination, the remaining tepals begin to swell and surround the hard nut at the center, forming a lovely translucent fruit-like structure that entices dispersal by birds. As interesting and effective as this reproductive strategy can be in healthy populations, the shrubby tororaro’s gynodioecious habit starts to break down as its numbers decrease in the wild. Photo by Jon Sullivan licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0 As New Zealand was colonized, lowland habitats like the grey scrub were among the first to be converted to agriculture and that trend has not stopped. What grey scrub habitat remains today is highly degraded by intense grazing and invasive species. Habitat loss has been disastrous for the shrubby tororaro and its neighbors. Though this shrub was likely never common, today only a few widely scattered populations remain and most of these are located on private property, which make regular monitoring and protection difficult. Observations made within remnant populations indicate that very little reproduction occurs anymore. Either populations are comprised of entirely female individuals or the few inconstant males that are produced are too widely spaced for pollination to occur. Even when a crop of viable seeds are produced, seedlings rarely find the proper conditions needed to germinate and grow. Invasive grasses and other plants shade them out and invasive insects and rodents consume the few that manage to make it to the seedling stage. Without intervention, this species will likely go extinct in the wild in the coming decades.Photo by John Pons
licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 Luckily, conservation measures are well underway and they involve cultivation by scientists and gardeners alike. There is a reason this shrub has become very popular among gardeners - it is relatively easy to grow and propagate. From hardwood cuttings taken in winter, the shrubby tororaro will readily root and grow into a clone of the parent plant. Not only has this aided in spreading the plant among gardeners, it has also allowed conservationists to preserve and bolster much of the genetic diversity within remaining wild populations. By cloning, growing, and distributing individuals among various living collections, conservationists have at least safeguarded many of the remaining individuals. Moreover, cultivation on this scale means dwindling wild populations can be supplemented with unrelated individuals that produce both kinds of flowers. By increasing the numbers within each population, conservationists are also decreasing the distances between female and inconstant male individuals, which means more chances for pollination and seed production. Though by no means out of the proverbial woods yet, the shrubby tororaro’s future in the wild is looking a bitbrighter.
This is good news for biodiversity of the region as well. After all, the shrubby tororaro does not exist in a vacuum. Numerous other organisms rely on this shrub for their survival. Birds feed heavily on its fruits and disperse its seeds while the larvae of at least a handful of moths feed on its foliage. In fact, the larvae of a few moths utilize the shrubby tororaro as their sole food source. Without it, these moths would perish as well. Of course, those larvae also serve as food for birds and lizards. Needless to say, saving the shrubby tororaro benefits far more than just the plant itself. Certainly more work is needed to restore shrubby tororaro habitat but in the meantime, cultivation is ensuring this species will persistinto the future.
Further Reading:
In Endangered Species , Ecology, Endemic Tags
Muehlenbeckia astonii , Polygonaceae, types of plants ,
rare plants , New Zealand, endemic plants ,
endangered species , plant conservation, cultivation ,
Matt Candeias , In Defense of Plants15 Likes 1 Comment
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THE CEROPEGIAS WELCOME A NEW MEMBERApril 25, 2021
Photos by David Styles The genus _Ceropegia_ is home to some of my favorite plants. Not only are they distant cousins of the milkweeds (_Asclepias_ spp.), they sport some of the most interesting floral morphologies whose beauty is only exceeded by their fascinating pollination syndromes. Recently, _CEROPEGIA_ EXPERT AND FRIEND OF THE PODCAST DR. ANNEMARIE HEIDUK brought to my attention the recent description of a species named inher honor.
_Ceropegia heidukiae_ hails from KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, and, at current, is believed to be endemic to a habitat type called the Northern Zululand Mistbelt Grassland. Morphologically, it has been described as an erect perennial herb. Unlike many of its cousins, _C. heidukiae_ does not vine. Instead, it grows a slender stem with opposite, ovate leaves that just barely reaches above the surrounding grasses. By far the most striking feature of this plant are itsflowers.
Photos by David Styles. _Ceropegia heidukiae_ produces elaborate trap flowers at the tips of its slender stems during the month of December (summer in the Southern Hemisphere). Each flower is comprised a greenish-gold, striped tube made of fused petals and topped with a purple, star-like structure with fine hairs. These flowers were the key indication that this species was previously unknown to science. Additionally, a sweet, acidic scent was detected during the relatively short blooming period. Their beauty aside, the anatomy and scent of these flowers hints at what may very well be a complex and specific pollination syndrome. Indeed, scientists like Dr. Heiduk are revealing amazing chemical trickery within the flowers of this incredible genus, including one species that mimics the smell of dying bees. Who knows what kinds of relationships this new species has evolved in its unique habitat. Only plenty of observation and experimentation will tell and I anxiously await future studies. A view of the Northern Zululand Mistbelt Grassland where _Ceropegia heidukiae_ was found. Sadly, _C. heidukiae_ lives in one of South Africa’s most threatened habitat types. South Africa’s Biodiversity Act currently classifies the Northern Zululand Mistbelt Grassland as endangered due to factors like timber plantations and unsustainable grazing. Hopefully with the recognition of unique species like _C. heidukiae_, more attention can be given to sustainable use of the Northern Zululand Mistbelt Grassland such that both the people and the species that rely on it can continue to do so for generations to come. Photo Credits: David StylesFurther Reading:
In Endangered Species , General Botany Tags Ceropegia heidukiae, Ceropegia ,
Apocynaceae , South Africa, rare plants ,
KwaZulu-Natal , Northern Zululand MistbeltGrassland , Matt
Candeias , In Defense of Plants , Dr. Annemarie Heiduk, David Styles
, Asclepiadoideae
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NATIVE PLANTS MAKE EVERY DAY EARTH DAYApril 19, 2021
We get so much joy out of watching people take pictures of our gardens as they walk by our apartment. Spring is here in the Northern Hemisphere which means gardening season is well underway. Having spent all winter thinking about what kinds of native plants we want to add to our gardens, my partner and I are always very excited to start germinating seeds and propagating plants. Though we always place the plants at the center of our focus, we would be lying if we said a big part of our gardening obsession wasn’t aimed at attracting wildlife to our property. There is no denying that GARDENING, ESPECIALLY WITH NATIVE PLANTS, IS THE BEST WAY TO BENEFIT LOCAL WILDLIFE in your neighborhood. It doesn’t take much to succeed either. Our landlords are amazing people that allow us a certain degree of freedom to do what we wish with the yard, but they still want to ensure that we maintain something akin to a “traditional” suburban landscape. As such, most of our gardening efforts must be crammed into borders and other highly manicured areas surrounding the lawn. Even so, we are constantly amazed by how much life our plants attract. I really wish we had the foresight to document insect diversity before we began planting so we could do a before and after comparison, but hindsight is always 20/20. From bees to mantis flies and a hefty population of fireflies, we spend hours each week pursuing the garden to see what kinds of interesting critters are hanging around the yard. The amount of insect life in our garden hasn’t gone unnoticedeither.
Leafhoppers and treehoppers are among our favorite insects to see inour gardens.
I remember one afternoon a couple years back, our neighbor approached us to ask if we had seen any bees visiting our tomato plants. Our reply was a very enthusiastic “YES” followed by a rundown of our best estimates on how many different bee species we encountered each day. He seemed a bit bummed and replied that he had yet to see a single bee on his plants. This was a teaching moment that we needed to address as tactfully as possible. You see, this neighbor is obsessed with mowing and spraying. Save for a few irises near his front porch and two raised beds chock full of tomatoes, no other plants beside grass are allowed to establish on his property. Though completely anecdotal, I can’t help but feel his lack of plants translates in a big way to his lack of bees. We mentioned that all of those “weeds” in our yard that he is always “jokingly” giving us a hard time about are the reason that we have so many bees. Tomato flowers are great but they aren’t around all the time and bees need other food to survive. They also need places to reproduce, which means leaving bare patches of soil around the property and allowing plenty of garden debris in the form of stems, twigs, and leaves to remain in place well into summer. I am not sure we convinced him to completely change his ways with that conversation, but it definitely got him thinking. He asked if next time we have some spare plants if we wouldn’t mind donating a few so that he can plant them near his tomato beds. We enthusiastically agreed. Though a minor victory, we celebrated the fact that our garden had served as a mini catalyst for a tiny change in someone else’slife.
A firefly stopping for a sip of nectar on one of our common milkweeds (_Asclepias syriaca_). With Earth Day coming up this week, the internet is full of quick tips on how to make your life more eco-friendly. There are endless articles available to those looking for advice on green living and sustainable gift ideas. I would like to argue that there is no greener gift than the gift of native plants. It doesn’t matter which species or why, just make sure you pick plants that are native to your region. By establishing native plants in your garden or even in pots on your patio or balcony, you are making a great step in celebrating Earth Day every day. Plants are truly the gift that keeps on giving and you can sleep better at night knowing that they are doing so much more than simply beautifying a space. They are providing food, shelter, and a place to breed for the countless organisms that allow ecosystems tofunction.
And, as we experienced with our neighbor, native plants can offer so many wonderful moments of inspiration and learning. As I discuss in MY BOOK, “IN DEFENSE OF PLANTS: AN EXPLORATION INTO THE WONDER OFPLANTS,”
realizing that native plants and the communities they comprise set the foundation for all other life on this planet set me on a path of wonder and discovery that I have never left. Plants changed my life for the better and by surrounding ourselves with them at all times, my partner and I know that we are doing our part to change the lives of the many organisms struggling to survive in this human-dominated world. So, if you want to live every day like it’s Earth Day, brighten up your life with a few native plants and enjoy all of the wonder and beauty they provide. In Ecology , Gardening Tags earth day every day, green living
, sustainable gifts
, native plants
, native plant garden, ecofriendly ,
earth day 2021 , Matt Candeias , In Defense of Plants, Mango Publishing
, types of plants
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SOME MAGNOLIA FLOWERS HAVE BUILT-IN HEATERSApril 11, 2021
_Magnolia denudata_. Photo by 阿橋 HQ licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0 There are a lot of reasons to like magnolias and floral thermogenesis is one of them. That’s right, the flowers of a surprising amount of magnolia species produce their own heat! Although much more work is needed to understand the mechanisms involved in heat generation in these trees, research suggests that it all centers on pollination. Magnolias have a deep evolutionary history, having arose on this planet some 95+ million years ago. Earth was a very different place back then. For one, familiar insect pollinators like bees had not evolved yet. As such, the basic anatomy of magnolia flowers was in place long before bees could work as a selective pressure in pollination. What were abundant back then were beetles and it is thought that throughout their history, beetles have served as the dominant pollinators for most species. Indeed, even today, beetles dominate the magnolia pollination scene. _Magnolia sprengeri_. Photo by Aleš Smrdel licensed under CC BY-NC2.0
Beetles are generally not visiting flowers for nectar. They are instead after the protein-rich pollen within each anther. It seems that when the anthers are mature, beetles are very willing to spend time munching away within each flower, however, keeping their attention during the female phase of the flower is a bit trickier. Because there are no rewards for visiting a magnolia flower during its female phase, evolution has provided some species with an interesting trick. This is where heat comes in. Though it varies from species to species, thermogenic magnolias produce combinations of scented oils that various beetles species find irresistible. That is, if they can pick up the odor against the backdrop of all the other enticing scents a forest has to offer. By observing floral development in species like _Magnolia sprengeri_, researchers have found that as the flowers heat up, the scented oils produced by the flower begin to volatilize. In doing so, the scent is dispersed over a much greater area than it would be without heat. _Magnolia tamaulipana_. Photo by James Gaither licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 Unlike some other thermogenic plants, heat production in magnolia flowers doesn’t appear to be constant. Instead, flowers experience periodic bursts of heat that can see them reaching temperatures as high as 5°C warmer than ambient temperatures. These peaks in heat production just to happen to coincide with the receptivity of male and female organs. Also, only half of the process is considered an “honest signal” to beetles. During the male phase, the beetles will find plenty of pollen to eat. However, during the female phase, the scent belies the fact that beetles will find no reward at all. This has led to the conclusion that the non-rewarding female phase of the magnolia flower is essentially mimicking the rewarding male phase in order to ensure some cross pollination without wasting any energy on additional rewards. The timing of heat production also changes depending on the species of beetle and their feeding habits. For species like the aforementioned_ M. sprengeri_, which is pollinated by beetles that are active during the day, heat and scent production only occur when the sun is up. Alternatively, for species like _M._ _tamaulipana _whose beetle pollinators are nocturnal, heat and scent production only occur at night. Researchers also think that seasonal climate plays a role as well, suggesting that heat itself may be its own form of pollinator reward in some species. Many of the thermogenic magnolias bloom in the early spring when temperatures are relatively low. It is likely that, aside from pollen, beetles may also be seeking a warm spot to rest. Personally, I was surprised to learn just how many different magnolias are capable of producing heat in their flowers. When I first learned of this phenomenon, I thought it was unique to _M. sprengeri _but I was wrong. We still have a lot to learn about this process but research like this just goes to show you that even familiar genera can hold many surprises for those curious enough to seek them out.Further Reading:
In Evolution , General Botany, Pollination
Tags Magnolia sprengeri , Magnolia tamaulipana, magnolia flowers
, thermogenesis ,
plant thermogenesis , thermogenic flowers , floral heat, Magnolia denudata
, In Defense of Plants, Matt Candeias
, trees , pollination , beetle pollination , magnolia pollination , types of magnolias27 Likes Comment
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MEET THE GOLDEN LOTUS BANANAApril 5, 2021
Photo by Linda De Volderlicensed under CC
BY-NC-ND 2.0
While perusing the internet the other day, I scrolled past an image of what looked like the physical manifestation of the sun emoji on my phone. The bright yellow flash was so striking that it caused me to pause and scroll back to the source. I was pleasantly surprised to see that the sun-like object belonged to something botanical. I was even more surprised to find out that it was produced by a unique cousin of the banana called the golden lotus banana (_Musella lasiocarpa_). The golden lotus banana is an oddball in many ways. For starters, it has a confusing taxonomic history. For many years, this odd plant has bounced back and forth between what was originally the only two genera in the banana family (Musaceae). Indeed, it has many outward characteristics that could firmly land it in either the genus _Musa _or the genus _Ensete. _Still, this plant is strange enough that numerous taxonomists have taken their own stab at narrowing down its correct placement. It wasn’t until DNA analyses revealed it to be so distinct from either of these genera that it warranted its own unique taxonomic placement. Thus, the monotypic genus _Musella_ was born. Photo by FarOutFlora licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 The plant itself is well known and widely cultivated throughout its home range in the Yunnan province of China. In fact, the golden lotus banana is so widely cultivated in this region as food for both humans and cattle alike, that experts couldn’t quite figure out if there were any wild populations left. It wasn’t until relatively recently that some wild populations were found. Sadly, these populations are under threat of being completely extirpated as much of the conifer-oak forests it calls home have been highly fragmented and degraded due to human activities. At least its popularity in cultivation means this species is not likely to go completely extinct any time soon. The golden lotus banana is rather interesting in form. When you look for pictures of this species around the web, you are likely to pull up images of a stubby, nearly leafless stalk tipped with the bright yellow bracts that look like the rays of a cartoonish sun. Apparently, plants can lose many of their leaves in cultivation around the time the inflorescence matures, giving the impression that it never had any to begin with. Of course, the plant does produce typical banana-like leaves for most of the year. As mentioned, the amazing inflorescence is borne at the tip of what looks like a small, woody trunk, but in reality is actually the fused petioles of their leaves. All members of the banana family are, after all, overgrown herbs, not trees. As is typical with this family, the flowers don’t all ripen at once. Instead, they begin at the base and gradually ripen over time, revealing consecutive whirls of tubular flowers surrounded by bright yellow bracts, though a variant population that produces red bracts was recently described as well. Interestingly, the golden lotus banana differs from its banana cousins in that its flowers are not pollinated by bats or birds. Instead, bees and wasps comprise the bulk of floral visitors, at least among cultivated populations. The first flowers to mature are male flowers that produce a small amount of nectar and copious amounts of pollen. Only the flowers near the base of the inflorescence are female and they produce a lot more nectar than themale flowers.
Photo by Linda De Volderlicensed under CC
BY-NC-ND 2.0
Research has shown that bees are far more likely to visit female over male flowers and their visits to female flowers last much longer. This is likely due to the differences in nectar production, but the end result is that by encouraging bees to spend less time on male flowers and more time on female flowers, each plant greatly increases the chances that pollen of unrelated individuals will end up on the stigma. After pollination, tiny fruits are formed, however, from what I have read they are largely inedible to humans. Once the fruits ripen and seeds are dispersed, the flowering stalk dies back and is replace by a fresh new growth stalk from the underground rhizome. The next time you find yourself at a botanical garden with a decent tropical plant collection, keep an eye out for the golden lotus banana. Outside of China, this species has gained some popularity among specialist plant growers and you just might be lucky to stumble across one in the process of blooming.Further Reading:
In General Botany , Pollination Tags Musella lasiocarpa , Musella , Musaceae , golden lotus banana , Chinese dwarf banana, Musa , Ensete
, Matt Candeias , InDefense of Plants
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A CLOSER LOOK AT HYACINTHSMarch 30, 2021
Photo by Radu Chibzii licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0 They say that our sense of smell is very closely tied with the formation of memories. It is around this time of year that I am strongly reminded of the power of that link. All I have to do is catch a whiff of a blooming hyacinth and I am immediately transported back to childhood where spring time gatherings with the family were always accompanied by mass quantities of these colorful bulbs. Indeed, the smell of hyacinths in bloom will forever hold a special place in mymind (and heart).
Because it is spring in my neck of the woods and because my partner recently came home with a wonderful potted hyacinth to add some springy joy our apartment, I decided to take a dive into the origins of these plants. Where do they come from and how do they live in the wild? Certainly they didn’t originate in our gardens. To start with, there are surprisingly few true hyacinths in this world these days. Whereas many more spring flowering bulbs were once considered members, today the genus _Hyacinthus_ is comprised of only three species, _H. litwinovii_, _H. transcaspicus_, and the most famous of them all, _H. orientalis_. All other “hyacinths” are hyacinths in name only. These plants were once considered members of the lily family (Liliaceae) but more recent genetic work places them in the asparagus family (Asparagaceae). All three species of hyacinth are native to the eastern Mediterranean region, throughout the Middle East, and well into southwestern Asia. As you might imagine, there is a fair amount of geographical variation across populations of these plants. FOR INSTANCE, _H. ORIENTALIS_ ITSELF CONTAINS MANY PUTATIVE SUBSPECIES AND VARIETIES.
However, their long history of human cultivation has seen them introduced and naturalized over a much wider area of the globe. Generally speaking, these plants tend to prefer cool, higher elevation habitats and loose soils. As many of you already know, hyacinths are bulbous plants. Throughout most of the year, they lie dormant beneath the soil waiting for warming spring weather to signal that it’s growing time. And grow they do! Because their leaves and inflorescence are already developed within the bulb, hyacinths can rapidly emerge, flower, and leaf out once snow thaws and releases water into the soil. And flower they do! Though selective breeding has resulted in myriad floral colors and strong, pleasant odors, the wild species are nonetheless put on quitea display.
The flowers of wild hyacinths are generally fewer in number and can range in color from almost white or light blue to nearly purple. Their wonderful floral scent is not a human-bred characteristic either, though we have certainly capitalized on it in the horticulture trade. In the wild, these scent compounds call in pollinators who are rewarded with tiny amounts of nectar. It is thought that bees are the primary pollinators of hyacinths both in their native and introducedhabitats.
Of course, all of their floral beauty comes down to seed production. Upon ripening, each fruit (capsule) opens to reveal numerous seeds, each with a fleshy attachment called an elaiosome. The elaiosome is very attractive to resident ants that quickly go to work collecting seeds and bringing them back to their colony. However, it isn’t the seed itself the ants are interested in, but rather the elaiosome. Once it is removed and consumed, the seed is discarded, usually in a waste chamber within the colony where it is free to germinate far away from potential seed predators. Once growth and reproduction are over, hyacinths once again retreat back underground into their bulb phase. Amazingly, these plants have a special adaptation to make sure that their bulbs are tucked safely underground, away from freezing winter temperatures. Throughout the growing season, hyacinths produce specialized roots that are able to contract. As they contract, they literally pull the base of the plant deeper into the soil. This is very advantageous for plants that enjoy growing in loose soils that are prone to freezing. Once underground and away from frost and snow, they lie dormant until spring returns. I don’t know about you but getting to know how common garden plants like hyacinths make a living in the wild only makes me appreciate them more. I hope this brief introduction will have you looking at the hyacinths in your neighborhood in a whole new light.Further Reading:
In Ecology , General BotanyTags Hyacinth ,
bulbs , Hyacinthus , Hyacinthus litwinovii , Hyacinthus transcaspicus , Hyacinthus orientalis, Asparagaceae
, In Defense of Plants, spring bulbs
, Matt Candeias ,
myrmecochory , seed dispersal19 Likes Comment
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WHEN THE GOING GETS TOUGH, DESERT MISTLETOES COOPERATEMarch 23, 2021
Sure, parasites can be a drain on their host, but for those parasites whose entire life depends on a living host, it doesn’t pay to kill. Such is the case for the desert mistletoe (_Phoradendron californicum_). These plants simply can’t live without the water and nutrients they receive from their host trees. But what happens when more than one mistletoe infects a single tree? One would think that supporting multiple mistletoes would be a dangerous drain on the host tree. However, recent research based in the Sonoran Desert suggests that desert mistletoe has a trick up its stems that involves a bit of communication with its neighbors. Desert mistletoe isn’t completely reliant on its host for all of its nutritional needs. Though lacking leaves, the desert mistletoe is fully capable of photosynthesis via its tangled mass of green stems. Most of what desert mistletoes extract from their host consists of water and other nutrients they can’t acquire themselves. However, desert mistletoes rarely operate alone. Thanks to their nutritious berries and the territorial habits of the birds that disperse them, multiple mistletoe individuals often wind up parasitizing the sametree.
Heavy infestations may sound like a death sentence for the host tree, especially in the harsh Sonoran climate. However, by manipulating the mistletoe loads on various trees and observing how mistletoes and their hosts respond, researchers have discovered that mistletoes can apparently sense their neighbors and alter their behavior accordingly. During dry periods, trees become stressed for both water and nutrients. For mistletoes growing on a stressed tree, it doesn’t make much sense from an evolutionary standpoint to increase their demand on the host during these times. Instead, mistletoes growing on stressed trees actually increased the amount of photosynthesis they perform without increasing the amount of water they extract from their host. By altering their metabolism in this way, the mistletoes do not add any extra burden to their already stressed host tree but nonetheless maintain their own fitness. Amazingly, the situation got even more interesting when researchers experimentally removed some mistletoes. Somehow, depending on their position on their host tree, some remaining mistletoes can sense that their competitors had been removed. When this happens, they don’t go into overdrive and start exacting a greater share of resources from their host. Instead, the remaining mistletoe appear to sense that they no longer have to compete as much and adjust their water and nutrient uptake in such a way that actually allows their host to benefit aswell.
Certainly these findings generate more questions than they answer. First, how do mistletoes sense their neighbors? Given their direct links with the host vascular tissues, they could be sensing signals from other parasites that way. There is also the potential for airborne signal detection as well. Also, do mistletoes behave differently when growing near related individuals versus strangers? What researchers have ultimately uncovered is a fascinating coevolutionary system in desperate need of more attention.Further Reading:
In Parasites Tags Phoradendron californicum , mistletoe , desert mistletoe , Sonoran Desert , parasitic plants, Matt Candeias ,
In Defense of Plants25 Likes Comment
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HOW FUNGUS GNATS MAINTAIN JACK-IN-THE-PULPITSMarch 14, 2021
There are a variety of ways that the boundaries between species are maintained in nature. Among plants, some of the best studied examples include geographic distances, differences in flowering phenology, and pollinator specificity. The ability of pollinators to maintain species boundaries is of particular interest to scientists as it provides excellent examples of how multiple species can coexist in a given area without hybridizing. I recent study based out of Japan aimed to investigate pollinator specificity among fungus gnats and five species of Jack-in-the-pulpit (_Arisaema_ spp.) and found that pollinator isolation is indeed a very strong force in maintaining species identity among these aroids, especially in the wake of forestdisturbance.
Fungus gnats are the bane of many a houseplant grower. However, in nature, they play many important ecological roles. Pollination is one of the most underappreciated of these roles. Though woefully understudied compared to other pollination systems, scientific appreciation and understanding of fungus gnat pollination is growing. Studying such pollination systems is not an easy task. Fungus gnats are small and their behavior can be very difficult to observe in the wild. Luckily, Jack-in-the-pulpits often hold floral visitors captive for a period of time, allowing more opportunities for data collection. By studying the number and identity of floral visitors among 5 species of Jack-in-the-pulpit native to Japan, researchers were able to paint a very interesting picture of pollinator specificity. It turns out, there is very little overlap among which fungus gnats visit which Jack-in-the-pulpit species. Though researchers did not analyze what exactly attracts a particular species of fungus gnat to a particular species of Jack-in-the-pulpit, evidence from other systems suggests it has something to do with scent. Like many of their aroid cousins, Jack-in-the-pulpits produce complex scent cues that can mimicking everything from a potential food source to a nice place to mate and lay eggs. Fooled by these scents, pollinators investigate the blooms, picking up and (hopefully) depositing pollen in the process. One of the great benefits of pollinator specificity is that it greatly increases the chances that pollen will end up on a member of the same species, thus reducing the chances of wasted pollen or hybridization. Still, this is not to say that fungus gnats are solely responsible for maintaining boundaries among these 5 Jack-in-the-pulpit species. Indeed, geography and flowering time also play a role. Under ideal conditions, each of the 5 Jack-in-the-pulpit species they studied tend to grow in different habitats. Some prefer lowland forests whereas others prefer growing at higher elevations. Similarly, each species tends to flower at different times, which means fungus gnats have few other options but to visit those blooms. However, such barriers quickly break down when these habitats are disturbed. Forest degradation and logging can suddenly force many plant species with different habitat preferences into close proximity with one another. Moreover, some stressed plants will begin to flower at different times, increasing the overlap between blooming periods and potentially allowing more hybridization to occur if their pollinators begin visiting members of other species. This is where the strength of fungus gnat fidelity comes into play. By examining different Jack-in-the-pulpit species flowering in close proximity to one another, the team was able to show that fungus gnats that prefer or even specialize on one species of Jack-in-the-pulpit are not very likely to visit the inflorescence of a different species. Thanks to these preferences, it appears that, thanks to their fungus gnat partners, these Jack-in-the-pulpit species can continue to maintain species boundaries even in the face of disturbance. All of this is not to say that disturbance can’t still affect species boundaries among these plants. The researchers were quick to note that forest disturbances affect more than just the plants. When a forest is logged or experiences too much pressure from over-abundant herbivores such as deer, the forest floor dries out a lot quicker. Because fungus gnats require high humidity and soil moisture to survive and reproduce, a drying forest can severely impact fungus gnat diversity. If the number of fungus gnat species declines, there is a strong change that these specific plant-pollinator interactions can begin to break down. It is hard to say what affect this could have on these Jack-in-the-pulpit species but a lack of pollinators is rarely a good thing. Certainly more research is needed.Photo Credit:
Further Reading:
In Ecology , Evolution, Pollination
Tags Jack in the Pulpit , Arisaema, aroids , araceae
, fungus gnats ,
pollination , pollinators, fly pollination ,
Matt Candeias , In Defense of Plants16 Likes Comment
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MY NEW BOOK HAS ARRIVED!February 23, 2021
The time has finally come!_ __IN DEFENSE OF PLANTS: AN EXPLORATION INTO THE WONDER OF PLANTS_ is now in stores. I thank everyone who pre-ordered a copy of the book. They should be on their way! I still can’t believe this is a reality. I always knew I wanted to write a book and I am eternally grateful to MANGO PUBLISHING for giving me this opportunity. _In Defense of Plants _is a celebration of plants for the sake of plants. There is no denying that plants are extremely useful to humanity in many ways, but that isn’t why this exist. Plants are living, breathing, self-replicating organisms that are fighting for survival just like the rest of life on Earth. And, thanks to their sessile habit, they are doing so in remarkable and sometimes alienways.
One of the best illustrations of this can be found in Chapter 3 of my new book: “The Wild World of Plant Sex.” Whereas most of us will have a passing familiarity with the concept of pollination, we have only really scratched the surface of the myriad ways plants have figured out how to have sex. Some plants go the familiar rout, offering pollen and nectar to floral visitors in hopes that they will exchange their gametes with another flower of the same species. Others have evolved trickier means to get the job done. Some fool their pollinators into thinking they are about to get a free meal using parts of their anatomy such as fake anthers or by offering nectar spurs that don’t actually produce nectar. Some plants even pretend to smell like dying bees to lure in scavenging flies. Still others bypass food stimuli altogether and instead smell like receptive female insects in hopes that sex-crazed males won’t know thedifference.
Pollination isn’t just for flowering plants either. In _In Defense of Plants _I also discuss some of the novel ways that mosses have converged on a pollination-like strategy by co-opting tiny invertebrates that thrive in the humid microclimates produced by the dense, leafy stems of moss colonies. This is just a taste of what is printed on the pages of my new book. I really hope you will consider picking up a copy. To those that already have, I hope you enjoy the read when it arrives! Thank you again for support In Defense of Plants. You are helping keep these operations up and running, allowing me to continue to bring quality, scientifically accurate botanical content to the world. Thank you from the bottom ofmy heart.
CLICK HERE IF YOU WOULD LIKE TO ORDER A COPY! YOU CAN ALSO PURCHASE A COPY DIRECTLY FROM THE PUBLISHER In Ecology , General BotanyTags plant science
, types of indoor plants, dispersal ,
gymnosperms , pollination , pollinators , solitarybees , wasps , fly
pollination , photosynthesis process , carnivorous plants, types of plants
, desert plants ,
types of ferns , In Defense of Plants, Matt Candeias
, books , plant books, ecology books ,
botany books , houseplants, gardening , plant
conservation , climate change , habitat destruction32 Likes Comment
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GOBLIN'S GOLD: THE STORY OF A LUMINOUS MOSSFebruary 21, 2021
Photo by Alpsdake
licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 Luminous moss, dragon’s gold, goblin’s gold… when a moss has this many common names, you know it must catch the eye. Indeed, _Schistostega pennata_ might just be one of the most dazzling of mosses around, that is provided you know where and how to look for it. Let’s begin with a brief introduction. Goblin’s gold is the only member of both its genus (_Schistostega_) and family (Schistostegaceae). Despite its unique taxonomic position, it is nonetheless a widespread species, growing naturally throughout many temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. When fully grown, the gametophyte stage of goblin’s gold sort-of resembles a tiny, green, semi-translucent feather. Small spore capsules are borne on the spindly stalk of the sporophyte and the resulting spores are said to be quite sticky. Instead of relying on wind to disperse its propagules, golbin’s gold utilizes animals. The spores are sticky enough that they get glom onto any insects or other small animals that brush up against them. The mature gametophyte of _Schistostega pennata_. Photo byHermannSchachner
licensed
under Public Domain
None of this, however, gives a hint as to how it earned all of those colorful names. To find that out, one must be ready to brave dark, damp spaces like caves. You see, though it can grow in more open habitats, you are most likely to encounter goblin’s gold in dark crevices or under overhangs. It has been said that goblin’s gold does not compete well with other plants in most habitats, but that doesn’t mean it doesn’t have a few tricks up its stems that give it an edge in other types of habitats. For most plants, caves and other dark places are a no go. They simply can’t get enough light to survive. Such is not the case for goblin’s gold. Instead of trying to compete with more aggressive vegetation, goblin’s gold occupies deeply shaded habitats that few other plants can. It owes its shade-tolerant abilities to a stage of its development most of us rarely think about, let alone notice. Photo by Jymm licensedunder CC BY-SA 4.0
When a moss spore germinates, it doesn’t immediately look like what we would recognize as a moss. Instead, it grows into thread-like, multicellular fillaments called a “protonema.” You can think of this as the juvenile stage of the gametophyte. The protonema spreads outward as it grows, gradually producing hormones and other growth regulators that will control the development of the mature gametophyte. Because goblin’s gold grows in such dark habitats, it can’t afford to grow its gametophyte anywhere. To grow long enough to reproduce, it has to find spots where there is enough light to complete its lifecycle. This is where the protonema comes in. In much the same why that fungal hyphae fan out into the soil in search of food to decompose, goblin’s gold protonema fan out over the damp substrate, searching for spots where enough light filters through to fuel growth. Luckily, the protonema can make do with much less light that the mature gametophyte, which also happens to be how this tiny moss earned so many interesting nicknames. When grown in deep shade, the protonema of goblin’s gold develops a layer of lens-shaped cells on its surface. The opposite side of each cell narrows to a cone. When light, no matter how weak, strikes these lens cells, the curvature focuses the light down into the cell so that it is concentrated into the tip at the bottom. Being able to sense the direction of the light, the chloroplasts within each cell can actually move around so that they are always in a position that maximizes their exposure. Through this process, each cell is able to concentrate what little light is available so that they can photosynthesize in light so low that nearly all other plants will starve. The light concentrating mechanism of the goblin’s gold protonema happens to have a wonderful and stunning side effect. As light enters the lens, small amounts of it are refracted around the cell. When that refracted light mixes with the green light that isn’t absorbed by the chloroplasts, it bounces back into the environment, giving the whole protonemal mat a green florescent glow when viewed in just theright way.
By being able to make use of what little light finds its way into these dark habitats, goblin’s gold can grow largely free of competition. Also, the protonema itself is capable of asexual reproduction so colonies can grow to epic proportions in dark areas, only producing mature gametophytes in a few spots. Interestingly, there appears to be some plasticity to this light-concentrating habit as well. When observing goblin’s gold protonema that develop under high light conditions, researchers have found that they do not develop lens shaped cells and therefore are not capable of reflecting light inthe same way.
Humans have known about this moss for centuries, even if they didn’t understand the mechanisms that cause it, and that is why this wonderfully unique species has earned so many common names.Photo Credits:
Further Reading:
In bryophytes , moss Tags Luminous moss , dragon's gold, gonlin's gold
, Schistostega pennata, Schistostega
, Schistostegaceae
, moss , bryophytes
, gametophyte ,
sporophyte , alternation of generations, protonema
, types of moss , In Defense of Plants , Matt Candeias, cave plants
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THE FIRST GENUS (ALPHABETICALLY)February 15, 2021
Photo by Eric in SF
licensed under CC
BY-SA 3.0
One thing I love about orchids is that they are so diverse. One could spend their entire life studying these plants and never run out of surprises. Every time I sit down with an orchid topic in mind, I end up going down a rabbit hole of immeasurable depth. I love this because I always end up learning new and interesting facts. For instance, I only recently learned that there is a genus of orchids that has been given the unbelievably complex name of _Aa_. No, that is not an abbreviation. The genus was literally named _Aa_. As far as I have been able to tell, it is pronounced “ah” rather than “ay,” but if any linguists are reading this and beg to differ, please chime in! Regardless, I was floored by this silly exercise in plant naming and had to learn more. I had never heard of this genus before and figured that it was so obscure that it probably contained, at most, only a small handful of species. This assumptionwas wrong.
_Aa maderoi. _Photo by Dr. Alexey Yakovlev licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0 Though by no means massive, the genus _Aa_ contains at least 25 recognized species. A quick search of the literature even turned up a few relatively recent papers describing new species. Apparently we have a ways to go in understanding their diversity. Nonetheless, this is an interesting and pretty genus of orchids. From what I gather, _Aa_ are most often found growing at high elevations in the Andes, though at least one species is native to mountainous areas of Costa Rica. They are terrestrial orchids that prefer cooler temperatures and fairly moist soil. Some species are said to only be found in close proximity to mountain streams. Some of the defining features of the genus are a tall inflorescence jam packed with tiny inconspicuous, greenish-white flowers. The flowers are surrounded by semi-transparent sheaths that are surprisingly showy. All in all, they kind of remind me of a mix between _Spiranthes_ and_Goodyera_.
Close up of an inflorescence of _Aa maderoi_ showing the small, white flowers and large, semi-transparent sheaths. Photo by Dr. Alexey Yakovlev licensed under CCBY-SA 2.0
But what about the name? Why in the world was this genus given such a strange and abrupt moniker? The answer seems to be the silliest option I could think of: to be first. This genus was originally described in 1845 by German botanist Heinrich Gustav Reichenbach who recognized two species within the genus _Altensteinia _to be distinct enough to warrant their own genus. According to most sources I could find, he coined this new genus _Aa_ so that it would appear first on all taxonomic lists. There is at least one other report that the name was given in honor of a man by the name of Pieter van der Aa, but apparently this is “highly” disputed. However, all of this should be taken with a grain of salt. Though I can find plenty of literature describing various species within the genus, I could turn up no actual literature on the naming of the genus itself. All I could find is what has been repeated (almost verbatim) from Wikipedia. So, there you have it. Not only does the genus _Aa_ exist, it is still top of the list of all plant genera. If that truly was the goal Heinrich Gustav Reichenbach was aiming for, he certainly hassucceeded!
Photos via Wikimedia CommonsFurther Reading:
In Orchids , TaxonomyTags Aa , orchids
, orchidaceae , taxonomy , first genus , matt candeias , In Defense of Plants, biodiversity
, Heinrich Gustav Reichenbach, Altensteinia
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A NEWLY DESCRIBED FUNGUS THAT MIMICS FLOWERSFebruary 7, 2021
(A) Young yellow-orange pseudoflower. (B) Mature pseudoflower. (C) Longitudinal section of an infected _X. surinamensis _inflorescence. (D) Healthy yellow flower of _X. surinamensis_ shown for comparison. Imagine there was a fungus that was able to hijack human reproductive structures so that it could reproduce. Though this sounds like the basis of a strange science fiction story, a similar situation to this has just been described from Guyana between two species of yellow-eyed grass (_Xyris setigera _& _X. surinamensis_) and a newly described species of fungus called _Fusarium xyrophilum._ FUNGI THAT HIJACK PLANT REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS ARE PRETTY RARE IN NATURE,
especially when you consider the breadth of interactions between these two branches on the tree of life. What makes this newly described case of floral hijacking so remarkable is the complexity of the whole process. It all begins when an infected _Xyris_ host begins to produce its characteristically lanky inflorescence. At first glance, nothing would appear abnormal. The floral spike elongates and the inflorescence at the tip gradually matures until the flowers are ready to open. Even when the “flower” begins to emerge from between the tightly packed bracts the process seems pretty par for the course. Gradually a bright yellow, flower-like structure bursts forth, looking very much like how a bright yellow _Xyris_ flower should look. However, a closer inspection of an infected plant would reveal something very different indeed. Instead of petals, anthers, and a pistil, infected inflorescences produce what is called a pseudoflower complete with petal-like structures. This pseudoflower is not botanical at all. It is made entirely by the _Fusarium_ fungus. Amazingly, these similarities are far from superficial. When researchers analyzed these pseudoflowers, they found that they are extremely close mimics of an actual _Xyris_ flower in more than just looks. For starters, they produce pigments that reflect UV light in much the same way that actual flowers do. They also emit a complex suite of volatile scent compounds that are known to attract pollinating insects. In fact, at least one of those compounds was an exact match to a scent compound produced by the flowers of these two _Xyris_ species. So, why would a fungus go through all the trouble of mimicking its hosts flowers so accurately? For sex, of course! This species of _Fusarium_ cannot exist without its _Xyris_ hosts. However,_ Xyris_ don’t live forever and for the cycle to continue, _Fusarium_ must go on to infect other _Xyris_ individuals. This is where those pseudoflowers come in. Because they so closely match actual _Xyris_ flowers in both appearance and smell, pollinating bees treat them just like flowers. The bees land on and investigate the fungal structure until they figure out there is no reward. No matter, they have already been covered in _Fusarium_ spores. As the bees visit other _Xyris_ plants in the area, they inevitably deposit spores onto each plant they land on. Essentially, they are being coopted by the fungus in order to find new hosts. By mimicking flowers, the _Fusarium_ is able to hijack plant-pollinator interactions for its own reproduction. It is not entirely certain at this point just how specific this fungus is to these two _Xyris_ species. A search for other potential hosts turned up only a single case of it infecting another _Xyris_. It is also uncertain as to how much of an impact this fungus has on _Xyris _reproduction. Though the fungus effectively sterilizes its host, researchers did make a point to mention that _Xyris_ populations may actually benefit from having a few infected plants as the pseudoflowers last much longer than the actual flowers and therefore could serve to attract more pollinators to the area over time. Who knows what further investigations into the ecology of this bizarre system will reveal.Photo Credit:
Further Reading:
In Parasites , Fungi Tags Fusarium xyrophilum , Xyris , yellow eyed grass , Iridaceae , Xyris setigera , Xyris surinamensis, Guyana ,
pseudoflowers , floral mimicry , In Defense of Plants, Matt Candeias
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THE ANCIENT GREEN BLOBS OF THE ANDESFebruary 3, 2021
Photo by Atlas of Wonderslicensed under CC
BY-NC-ND 2.0
Curious images of these strange green mounds make the rounds of social media every so often. What kind of alien life form is this? Is it a moss? Is it a fungus? The answer may surprise you! These large, green mounds are comprised of a colony of plants in the carrot family! The Yareta, or _Azorella compacta_, hails from the Andes and only grows between 3,200 and 4,500 meters (10,500 - 14,750 ft) in elevation. Its tightly compacted growth habit is an adaptation to its high elevation lifestyle. Cushion growth like this helps these plants prevent heat and water loss in these cold, dry, windyenvironments.
Every so often, these mats erupt with tiny flowers, which must be a sight to behold! Photo by Lon&Queta licensed under CC BY-NC-SA2.0
As you might imagine, these plants are extremely slow growers. By studying their growth rates over time, experts estimate that individual colonies expand at the rate of roughly 1.5 cm each year. By extrapolating these rates to the measurements of large colonies, we get a remarkable picture of how old some of these plants truly are. Indeed, some of the largest colonies are estimated at over 3000 years old, making them some of the oldest living organisms on the planet! Sadly, the dense growth of the plant makes it highly sought after as a fuel source. Massive chunks of these plants are harvested with pick axes and burned as a source of heat. Due to their slow growth rate, overharvesting in recent years has caused a serious decline in Yareta populations. Local governments have since enacted laws to protect this species in hopes that it will give colonies the time they need to recover. Indeed, some recovery has already been documented, however, continued monitoring and management will be needed to ensure their populations remain viable into the foreseeable future.Photo Credits:
Further Reading:
In Alpine , Endangered Species, Conservation
, General Botany
Tags Yareta ,
Azorella compacta , Apiaceae, cushion plants ,
alpine plants , rare plants , old plants , ancient plants , Andes , Matt Candeias , In Defense of Plants, carrot family
, overharvesting
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BOOK RELEASE UPDATES!February 1, 2021
It’s February, which means _In Defense of Plants: An Exploration into the Wonder of Plants_ comes out _this month_!! I just wanted to give you all an update on when orders will start shipping. Due to shipping delays, PHYSICAL BOOK ORDERS WILL NOT BEGIN SHIPPING UNTIL FEBRUARY 23RD from all retailers. I apologize for the week-long delay, but COVID has done a number on shipping logistics and the publisher is doing all they can. Stay patient and you will get itwithin that week.
Also, for those in Europe, North and South East Asia, Oceania, and Canada that are interested in purchasing a copy, _In Defense of Plants_ will be available in those markets as well! Please stay tuned for more availability info. That being said, anyone who pre-ordered the audio book or ebook version will receive their copy as scheduled on February 16th. Finally, a massive thank you to everyone who has pre-ordered the book thus far. Your interest has skyrocketed _In Defense of Plants_ to the top of multiple new release lists! For those of you interested in getting their hands on a copy, here are some links: AMAZON- https://amzn.to/3mBA1Ov BOOKSHOP- https://bit.ly/3lxih5B BARNES AND NOBLE- https://bit.ly/3qpE570 In General Botany Tags In Defense of Plants , Matt Candeias, plant science ,
types of indoor plants , dispersal, gymnosperms ,
photosynthesis process , carnivorous plants , types of plants, desert plants ,
types of ferns
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A RARE SUCCULENT MEMBER OF THE MILKWEED FAMILYJanuary 26, 2021
Photo by: Gennaro Re Across nearly every ecosystem on Earth, biodiversity tends to follow a pattern in which there are a small handful of very common species and many, many more rare species. It would seem our knowledge of plants follows a similar pattern; we know a lot about a small group of species and very little to nothing about most others. Take, for example, a succulent relative of the milkweeds known to science as _Whitesloanea crassa_. Despite its occurrence in specialist succulent plant collections, we know next to nothing about the natural history of this species or if it even still exists in the wild at all. _ _Without flowers, one would be hard pressed to place this odd succulent within a family. Even when in bloom, proper analysis of its taxonomic affinity requires a close inspection of the floral morphology. What _W. crassa _exhibits is a highly derived morphology well-adapted to its xeric environment. Native to Somalia, it was said to grow on bare ground and its appearance supposedly matches the rocks that dominate its desert habitat. Never producing leaves or branches, the main body of _W. crassa _consists of a succulent, quadrangular stem that slowly grows upwards as it ages. Flowers are produced in a dense inflorescence, which is most often situated near the base of the plant. Each flower is very showy at maturity, consisting of a fleshy, fused, 5-lobed corolla decorated in shades of pink and red. As far as I can tell, this is not one of stinkier members of the family. Though I have found pictures of flowers crawling with maggots, most growers fail to comment on any strong odors. In fact, aside from limited care instructions, detailed descriptions of the plant represent the bulk of the scientific information available on this odd species. Maggots crawling around inside the flowers indicates this species mimics carrion as its pollination mechanism. Photo by: Flavio Agrosi As I mentioned, it is hard to say whether this species still exists in the wild or not. The original mention of this plant in the literature dates back to 1914. A small population of _W. crassa_ was found in northern Somalia and a few individuals were shipped overseas where they didn’t really make much of an impact on botanists or growers at that time. It would be another 21 years before this plant would receive any additional scientific attention. Attempts to relocate that original population failed but thanks to a handful of cultivated specimens that had finally flowered, _W. crassa _was given a proper description in 1935. After that time, _W. crassa _once again slipped back into the world of horticultural obscurity. A few decades later, two additional trips were made to try and locate additional _W. crassa _populations. Botanical expeditions to Somalia in 1957 and again in 1986 did manage to locate a few populations of this succulent and it is likely that most of the plants growing in cultivation today are descended from collections made during those periods. However, trying to find any current information on the status of this plant ends there. Some say it has gone extinct, yet another species lost to over-collection and agriculture. Others claim that populations still exist but their whereabouts are kept as a closely guarded secret by locals. Though such claims are largely unsubstantiated, I certainly hope the latter is true and the former isnot.
Photo by: Flavio Agrosi Our knowledge of _W. crassa _is thus restricted to what we can garner from cultivated specimens. It is interesting to think of how much about this species will remain a mystery simply because we have been unable to observe it in the wild. Despite these limitations, cultivation has nonetheless provided brief windows into it’s evolutionary history. Because of its rock-like appearance, it was assumed that _W. crassa _was related to the similar-looking members of the genus _Pseudolithos_. However, genetic analysis indicates that it is not all that closely related to this genus. Instead, _W. crassa_ shares a much closer relationship to _Huernia_ and_ Duvalia_. This is where the story ends unfortunately. Occasionally one can find cultivated individuals for sale and when you do, they are usually attached to a decent price tag. Those lucky enough to grow this species successfully seem to hold it in high esteem. If you are lucky enough to own one of these plants or to have at least laid eyes on one in person, cherish the experience. Also, consider sharing said experiences on the web. The more information we have on mysterious species like _W. crassa_, the better the future will be for species like this. With any luck, populations of this plant still exist in the wild, their locations known only to those who live nearby, and maybe one day a lucky scientist will finally get the chance to study its ecology a little bit better.Photo Credits:
& Flavio Agrosi
Further Reading:
In Ecology , Desert Plants , Endangered Species Tags Whitesloanea crassa, Apocynaceae ,
succulents , rare plants , endangered species, extinct plants
, extinct in the wild47 Likes Comment
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KRASSILOVIA: AN AMAZING CRETACEOUS CONIFERJanuary 20, 2021
Reconstructing extinct organisms based on fossils is no simple task. Rarely do paleontologists find complete specimens. More often, reconstructions are based on fragments of individuals found either near one another or at least in similar rock formations. This is especially true for plants as their growth habits frequently result in fragmentary fossilization. As such, fossilized plant remains of a single species are often described as distinct species until subsequent detective work pieces together a more complete picture. Such was the case for the fossil remains of what were described as _Krassilovia mongolica_ and _Podozamites harrisii_. Hailing from the Early Cretaceous (some 100-120 million years ago), Krassilovia was only known from oddly spiny cone scales and Podozamites was only known from strap-shaped leaves found in a remote region of Mongolia. Little evidence existed to suggest they belonged to the same plant. That is, until these structures were analyzed using scanning electronmicrographs.
(A–C) Articulated seed cones, (D) Isolated cone axis, (E) Incomplete leafy shoot showing a cluster of three attached leaves, (F) Three detached strap-shaped leaves, G) Detail of A showing tightly imbricate interlocking bract-scale complexes, (H) Detail of leaf apex showing converging veins, (I) Three isolated bract-scale complexes showing abaxial (top) and adaxial (bottom) surfaces, (J) Two isolated seeds showing narrow wings. These fossilized plant remains were preserved in such detail that microscopic anatomical features such as stomata were visible under magnification. By studying the remains of these plants as well as others, scientists discovered some amazing similarities in the stomata of _Krassilovia_ and _Podozamites_. Unlike other plant remains associated with those formations, the _Krassilovia_ cone scales and Podozamites leaves shared the exact same stomate morphology. Though not without some uncertainty, the odds that these two associated structures would share this unique morphological trait by chance is slim and suggests that these are indeed parts of the same plant. The amazing discoveries do not end with stomata either. After countless hours of searching, fully articulated _Krassilovia_ cones were eventually discovered, which finally put the strange spiky cone scales into context. It turns out those spiked scales interlocked with one another, with the two bottom spikes of one scale interlocking with the three top spikes of the scale below it. In life, such interlocking may have helped protect the developing seeds within until they had matured enough to be released. Also, the sheer volume of cone scales coupled with other minute anatomical details I won’t go into here indicate that, similar to _Abies_ and _Cedrus_ cones, _Krassilovia_ cones completely fell apart when fully ripe. Though not related, the cone scales of the extinct _Krassilovia_ (left) show similarities with the cone scales of modern day _Cryptomeria_ species (right). Interestingly, the ability to resolve microscopic structures in these fossils has also provided insights into some modern day taxonomic confusion. It turns out that _Krassilovia_ shares many minute anatomical similarities with present day Gnetales. GNETALES REALLY CHALLENGE OUR PERCEPTION OF GYMNOSPERMS AND THEIR SUPERFICIAL RESEMBLANCE TO ANGIOSPERMShave
led many to suggest that they represent a clade that is sister to flowering plants. However, more recent molecular work has placed the extant members of Gnetales as sister to the pines. Evidence of shared morphological features between extinct conifers like _Krassilovia_ and modern day Gnetales add some interesting support to this hypothesis. Until more concrete evidence is described and analyzed, the true evolutionary relationships among these groups will remain the object of heated debate for the foreseeable fture. What we can say is that _Krassilovia mongolica_ was one remarkable conifer. Its unique morphology clearly demonstrates that conifers were once far more diverse in form and function than they are currently. Even the habitat in which _Krassilovia_ once lived is not the kind of place you can find thriving conifer communities today. _Krassilovia_ once grew in a swampy habitat. However, whereas only a few extant conifers enjoy swamps, _Krassilovia_ once shared its habitat with a wide variety of conifer species, the likes of which we are only just beginning to appreciate. I for one am extremely excited to see what new fossil discoveries will uncover in the future. LISTEN TO EPISODE 300 OF THE IN DEFENSE OF PLANTS PODCAST TO LEARN MORE ABOUT THIS FOSSIL AND THE ECOSYSTEM IN WHICH IT ONCE EXISTED.Photo Credits:
Further Reading:
In conifers , Evolution, Paleobotany
Tags Krassilovia mongolica , Gnetales , Gnetum , Podozamites, paleobotany , Dr.
Fabiany Herrera , Matt Candeias , In Defense of Plants, conifers , plant
evolution , extinct plants, plant fossils ,
Cretaceous , stomata21 Likes Comment
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FRASER FIR: A NEW LOOK AT AN OLD FRIENDJanuary 13, 2021
Photo by James St. John licensed under CC BY 2.0 Growing up, Fraser fir (_Abies fraseri_) was a fairly common sight in our house. Each winter this species would usually win out over other options as the preferred tree for our living room during the holiday season. Indeed, its pleasing shape, lovely color, and soft needles have made it one of the most popular Christmas trees around the world. Amazingly, despite its popularity as a decoration, Fraser fir is so rare in the wild that it is considered an endangered species. Fraser fir is native to only a handful of areas in the southern Appalachian Mountains. Together with red spruce (_Picea rubens_), this conifer makes up one of the rarest ecosystems on the continent - the southern Appalachian spruce-fir forest. Such forests only exist at elevations above 4,000 ft (1,200 m) from southwestern Virginia to western North Carolina and eastern Tennessee. The reason for this limited distribution is rooted in both modern day climate and North America’s glacial past.USGS/Public Domain
Whereas anyone hiking through Appalachian spruce-fir forests could readily draw similarities to boreal forests found farther north, the Appalachian spruce-fir forests are nonetheless unique, HOSTING MANY SPECIES FOUND NOWHERE ELSE IN THE WORLD.
Indeed, these forests are holdovers from the Pleistocene when the southeast was much cooler than it is today. As glaciers retreated and the climate warmed, Appalachian spruce-fir forests “retreated” up the mountains, following their preferred climate zones until they hit the peaks of mountains and couldn’t go any further. Indeed, Fraser fir is in large part limited in its distribution by temperature. This conifer does not perform well at high temperatures and is readily out-competed by other species under warmer conditions. Another factor that has maintained Appalachian spruce-fir forests at elevation is fog. The southern Appalachian Mountains host EASTERN NORTH AMERICA’S ONLY TEMPERATE RAINFORESTand
fog commonly blankets high elevation areas throughout the year. Research has shown that in addition to keeping these areas cool, fog also serves as an important source of water for Fraser fir and its neighbors. As fog condenses on its needles, these trees are able to absorb that water, keeping them hydrated even when rain is absent. A view of an Appalachian spruce-fir forest from the Blue RidgeParkway.
Due to its restricted habitat, Fraser fir has never been extremely common. However, things got even worse as Europeans colonized North America. Over the past two centuries, unsustainable logging and grazing practices have decimated southern Appalachian spruce-fir forests, fragmenting them into even smaller patches with no connectivity in between. In areas where thin, rocky soils were not completely washed away, Fraser fir seedlings did return, however, this was not always the case. In areas where soils were were lost, southern Appalachian spruce–fir forests were incapable of regenerating. If the story ended there, Fraser fir and its habitat would still be in trouble but sadly, things only got worse with the introduction of the invasive balsam woolly adelgid (_Adelges piceae_) from Europe around 1900. Like the HEMLOCK WOOLLY ADLEGID,
this invasive, sap-feeding insect has decimated Fraser fir populations throughout southern Appalachia. Having shared no evolutionary history with the adelgid, Fraser fir is essentially defenseless and estimates suggest that upwards of 90% of infect trees have been killed by the invasion. Although plenty of Fraser fir seedlings have sprung up in the wake of this destruction, experts fear that as soon as those trees grow large enough to start forming fissures in their bark, the balsam woolly adelgid will once again experience a massive population boom and repeat the process of destruction again. Dead Fraser fir as seen from Clingman’s Dome. Photo by Brian Stansberry licensedunder CC BY 3.0
The loss of Fraser fir from this imperiled ecosystem has had a ripple effect. Fraser fir is much sturdier than its red spruce neighbors and thus provides an important windbreak, protecting other trees from the powerful gusts that sweep over the mountain tops on a regular basis. With a decline in the Fraser fir canopy, red spruce and other trees are more susceptible to blowdowns. Also, the dense, evergreen canopy of these Appalachian spruce-fir forests produces a unique microclimate that fosters the growth of myriad mosses, liverworts, ferns, and herbs that in turn support species like the endangered endemic spruce-fir moss spider (_Microhexura montivaga_). As Fraser fir is lost from these areas, the species that it once supported decline as well, placing the whole ecosystem at risk of collapse. The moss-dominated understory of an Appalachian spruce-fir forest supports species found nowhere else in the world. Photo by Miguel.vlicensed under CC
BY 3.0
Luckily, the plight of this tree and the habitat it supports has not gone unnoticed by conservationists. Numerous groups and agencies are working on conserving and restoring Fraser fir and southern Appalachian spruce-fir forests to at least a portion of their former glory. This is not an easy task by any means. Aside from lack of funding and human power, southern Appalachian spruce-fir forest conservation and restoration is hindered by the ever present threat of a changing climate. Fears that the life-giving fog that supports this ecosystem may be changing make it difficult to prioritize areas suitable for reforestation. Also, the continued threat from invasive species like the balsam woolly adelgid can hamper even the best restoration and conservation efforts. Still, this doesn’t mean we must give up hope. With continued collaboration and effort, we can still ensure that this unique ecosystem has a chance to persist. PLEASE VISIT THE CENTRAL APPALACHIAN SPRUCE RESTORATION INITIATIVE (CASRI) WEBSITE TO LEARN MORE!Photo Credits:
Further Reading:
In Alpine , conifers, Conservation ,
Ecology , Endangered Species, Forests ,
Geology , moss ,
Pleistocene Tags Fraser fir , southern Appalachian spruce-fir forest, Appalachian
Mountains , Appalachian Endemic, red spruce ,
Picea rubens , Great Smoky Mountains , balsam woolly adelgid, Adelges piceae
, matt candeias ,
In Defense of Plants , invasive species , invasive insects , adelgid , spruce-fir moss spider , Microhexura montivaga27 Likes Comment
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